Ethnography (from the ancient Greek ἔθνος - people and γρφω - I write) - a science that studies peoples - ethnic groups and other ethnic formations, their origin ( ethnogenesis ), composition, settlement, cultural and everyday characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture [1] .
The subject of ethnography
The main subject of ethnography is the study of the peoples of the world, their spiritual and material cultures, their historical development. An important place is occupied by the study of ethnogenesis - the history of the emergence of one or another ethnos, the formation of social institutions. Recently, attention has been paid to inter-ethnic relations.
Ethnography and ethnology
The fate of the two names was largely accompanied by one or other historical conditions. Thus, in the national ethnography of the 18th and 19th centuries , the concept of “ ethnography ” was mainly used, whereas in the Western European countries the concepts of “ anthropology ” and “ ethnology ” were used [3] [4] .
NN Kharuzin (1865–1900) defined ethnography as a science, “which, studying the life of individual tribes and nations, seeks to find the laws according to which the development of humanity proceeded at the lower levels of culture” [5] .
After a brief use of the term "ethnology" in the post-revolutionary years, in 1920-1930. ethnography is again being elevated to the concept of ethnography as a science of peoples and an auxiliary historical discipline. At this time, such scientists as S. A. Tokarev (“Ethnography is a part of historical science that studies material and spiritual culture, life of nations” [6] ), Yu. Bromley, S. P. Tolstov, N. N. Cheboksarov, R. F. Itts and others.
Regarding the terminology R. F. Ets (1928–1990) wrote:
The change of the name "ethnography" to "ethnology" proposed by some Soviet researchers or the selection of the same "ethnology" on the basis of theoretical aspects of ethnography is not justified and does not contribute to terminological clarity, since the term "ethnography" has long been understood not so much as "people" (ethnos) -description (graph) "how much" ethnology ", which is practically a Russian translation of the term" ethnology " [7] . |
A fundamental shift in the use of both the term and science itself occurs in the 1990s . After the decision to rename the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR into the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology was made, the concept was bifurcated in a bilingual form [8] . In many respects, this is connected with the activity of the director of the institute V. A. Tishkov :
It was not so easy to decide on the renaming of the institute and discipline as a whole from ethnography to ethnology, if several generations formed the identity of scientists as ethnographers, and the word “ethnography” retained its worthy content. There were many critics and offensive statements on this subject before and after when the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1990 adopted a resolution to rename the institute, and there were very few allies. It was important for me to modernize the discipline, to inscribe it in the world ethnological and anthropological knowledge, while maintaining the guild basis of our science - its ethnographic method [9] . |
Late 1980s - early 1990s there was a time of confusion and even a split in the once-seemed friendly community of Soviet ethnographers. It seemed to me that the creation of a national association and the holding of disciplinary congresses are necessary for the development of national ethnology and anthropology and for playing the coordinating role of the institute. An association of ethnographers (namely, ethnographers, in order not to commit violence against the entire Russian community!) And anthropologists of Russia was created. The first congress was held in 1995 in Ryazan. About 80 scientists participated in it, including from Georgia and other new states. Strongly bitten by mosquitoes in the floodplain. Oka, where was the venue of the congress, these people laid a new tradition. VII Congress in 2007 in Saransk gathered more than 700 participants! This tradition will live long [10] . |
Bilingualism is preserved, which is clearly expressed in the name of the departments - Department of Archeology, Ethnography and Source Studies of the AltSU [11] , Department of Ethnography and Museology of Omsk State University [12] , Department of Anthropology and Ethnography of St. Petersburg State University [13] :
In recent years, more and more often, science studying the peoples of the Earth, their culture and way of life, traditions and customs are beginning to be called not ethnography in Russia, which literally means “people's narrative”, as was customary in our country in the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries. ., and ethnology, i.e. "ethnology", as is customary in a number of scientific schools in the West. The department of St. Petersburg University and its name and its curriculum seeks to continue the traditions of national science, founded in our city since its inception. The concept of ethnography is still the department, as it was in the Russian science of the XIX century, it includes both the empirical, descriptive content of the process of studying peoples, and the theoretical, ethnological, understanding of the patterns of their development and interaction. Today, the main object of attention of ethnography (ethnology) is the biosocial community - ethnos (people), and the main task of ethnographers is the study of issues related to the formation of ethnic groups, their settlement, internal and external features, their regional and global interconnections. |
The Problem of the “Ethnos” Concept in Ethnography
As early as the 19th century, the first attempts to explain what the notion “ethnos”, “ people ” means. One of the first to try to do this was A. Bastiani . He came to the conclusion that the types of existence of an ethnos are a nation , nationality , tribe , as self-sufficient, self-produced by reproducing ethnic identity and ethnically homogeneous marriages, holistic and stable, single-system formations [14] . However, this explanation could not satisfy the researchers, as it did not take into account factors, for example, ethnocultural and language assimilation.
Influenced by the works of evolutionists, as well as the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, a new theory emerges - ethnic groups as social groups that emerged during the historical process (in the works of Marxists, he often looked like this - a tribe, a nationality, a capitalist nation (and sometimes this period), the socialist nation).
In the USSR, research was also conducted on the essence of the concept of “ethnos”. One of the main theoretical propositions was put forward by academician Yu. V. Bromley , who singled out ethnos as “ethnikos” in a local sense and ethnos as an ethnosocial organism [15] . Y. Bromley divided the concepts of “ethnikos” and “nation”, so he wrote: “Ethnicos and ethnosocial organisms are the main types of ethnic communities. But they are not limited to the ethnic structure of humanity. Many ethnic groups, especially large ones, often themselves consist of so-called ethnographic groups or sub-ethnic groups. These terms are used to designate territorial parts of an ethnos, differing in local specificity of the spoken language, culture and life, sometimes having a self-name and, as it were, dual self-consciousness. Ethnographic groups often originate from tribal components that are included in a nation or nation. Sometimes they arise during the socio-religious differentiation of an ethnos, as well as as a result of a strong expansion of ethnic territory, when migrating parts of an ethnos fall into a different natural environment, interact with various neighboring ethnic groups, etc. ” [16]
In modern Russia, VA Tishkov , in particular, is engaged in the study of the problems of “ethnos”, which builds his theory on the basis of foreign studies. It should be noted that one of the reasons for the emergence of constructivism (this theory got its name) was the aggravation of the national question in some foreign countries. The concept of race in it is replaced by a "phenotype."
The most important concept in modern ethnology and ethnography is the concept of “ ethnicity ” as a set of linguistic, cultural and other characteristics, separating one society from another.
Ethnographic methods
The main method of ethnography is the direct observation of the life and customs of the peoples of the globe, their resettlement and cultural and historical relations, with their subsequent analysis. Since ethnography studies modern peoples not only in their existing, but also in their historical and cultural development, ethnogenesis and history of the formation of social institutions, written and material sources are also used [17] .
The method of direct observation is the work of an ethnographer in the territory of his research, and is referred to as field ethnographic research (field ethnography) .
Field ethnography is a study conducted among living peoples in order to collect initial ethnographic data on the individual structural components of a traditional household culture and their functioning as a specific system [18] .
All field ethnographic studies can be divided into two types:
- Stationary - long living among the people studied, with the result that the ethnographer more deeply recognizes his material and spiritual culture, as well as life. Among the shortcomings is the small coverage of the territory, and consequently the impossibility of comparative research with other areas ( VG Bogoraz , L. Ya. Shternberg , N. N. Miklukho-Maclay , B. Malinovsky, and others) were prominent representatives.
- Expeditionary - the most common method of collecting ethnographic material, allows for a short time (from several weeks to a couple of months) to collect material about life, housing, clothing, utensils, that is, that does not require stationary observation [19] .
During field ethnographic studies using the following methods:
- Observation - a method in which the researcher enters into the studied environment, distinguish simple - observation from the side or internal, when the researcher takes part in the life of the studied society.
- Survey - a method of collecting primary information. An ethnographer first compiles a questionnaire, and then talks on it with residents.
- Questioning - a method in which the researcher does not personally talk with the informant, but by means of a questionnaire (via mail, by distributing flyers or by the press)
- Interview - a personal conversation using a questionnaire.
Also worth noting:
- The method of remnants - the study of certain phenomena that still remain with the peoples, but have lost their former value.
- Comparative-functional (or cross-cultural) method , which allows, by comparison, to identify common in the development of peoples, as well as their causes.
Cultural types
It has long been noted that people speaking different languages have much in common in spiritual and material cultures, and related ones, on the contrary, are sometimes very different. That is why the notions of “economic and cultural types” and “historical and ethnographic areas” were formulated.
Economic and cultural type (CCT) is a complex of economic and cultural features that has developed historically among various peoples at similar levels of socio-economic development and living in similar natural-geographical conditions [20] .
All economic and cultural types depend primarily on the mode of production of each particular society, since it determines in the final analysis the nature of interaction with the environment. That is why, due to differences in the industries, food production, utensils, etc., there are also features among different nations (cf. the presence of similar beliefs among the peoples of the Volga region and the Celts, as well as with the Slavic population - the commonality of production - agriculture, and related, agrarian cult). The social structure of a society also depends on the type of CCT. All economic and cultural types can be divided into 3 large groups:
- The group with the predominant role of hunting, gathering and fishing, the so-called. “Appropriating” farm type
- Hoeing farmers and livestock breeders. Here the economy is more stable and regular. It becomes possible to save some of the products for a while, there is an excess, and consequently the appearance of early class relations (for example, slavery, without accumulation, "excess", it would be impossible, because there would be nothing to feed the slaves).
- Plow farmers. The main feature - the use of agricultural work in the agricultural work of animals. Labor productivity is increasing; it was this type that was the main mode of production for the class societies of Asia, Europe and Africa.
These three types are superficial (common), and are themselves divided into other types (for example: hunters and forest gatherers of the hot belt, high-mountain herdsmen-nomads, etc.) [21]
Historical and Cultural
Historical and cultural areas (historical and ethnographic) are territories whose population has a similar spiritual and material culture, connected by historical destiny, common economic development, resulting from close mutual influence. In contrast to the economic and cultural types, the historical and ethnographic regions depend precisely on their territorial proximity, whereas the former depend on the nature of production and the habitat. For example, the HKT of arable farmers and forest-steppes and forests of the temperate zone are the territories of the temperate zone of Europe and countries of Asia and North America (after colonization).
Anthropological classification
The classification is based on the external ( anthropological ) distinction of humanity. According to this part of ethnology, nations are divided into races, which also have their subtypes:
Anthropological types of humanity [22] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
European race | Mongoloid race | Negroid race | Australoid race | Transitional groups |
North European types :
Transition types :
Southern types :
| Asian type
American races | Negros Negrilli (Pygmies) Capoid Race - Bushmen and Hottentots | Veddoids Australians Aina Papuans and Melanesians Negritos | Between Caucasians and the Asiatic branch of Mongoloids :
Between Caucasians and the American race :
Between Caucasians and Negroids :
|
Linguistic classification
Important in the study of peoples is the linguistic classification, which is divided into two types - morphological and genetic . For ethnography, genetic classification is of particular importance, since the kinship of languages implies the kinship of their speakers (except, for example, Spanish and English and some others, where the historical process was different) [27] .
Language classification | |
---|---|
Typological (morphological) | Genetic |
Languages of the inflectional system Languages of the agglutinative system Isolating languages Polysynthetic languages | Indo-European languages Basque Caucasian languages Uralic languages Altai languages Dravidian languages Paleoasian languages Austronesian languages Andaman languages Sino-Tibetan languages (Sino-Tibetan) Afrasian languages Nigero-Congolese Nilo-Saharan languages Khoisan languages Oceania and Australian Languages North American Indian Languages Languages of Indians of South America other |
Relationship of ethnography with other sciences
Although ethnography is part of historical science , it has much in common with other disciplines.
Ethnography and anthropology
Ethnography is closely associated with this science. Despite the fact that physical anthropology studies peoples in their anthropological diversity, the interaction is obvious: sometimes even kindred peoples and tribes have differences, which cannot be explained only by comparing folklore and written sources. Only by studying the anthropological features can one identify certain hypotheses (for example, the Pamir Tajiks separated themselves from the rest of the population as a result of long territorial isolation, which left an imprint on their culture). The most important anthropology is also in the study of ethnogenesis . It is no coincidence that the Department of Ethnography at St. Petersburg State University is called the Department of Ethnography and Anthropology [28] .
Ethnography and Philosophy
At one time, philosophy was considered the most important of the sciences not by chance - what else combined in itself so many teachings and opinions? Ethnography is associated with it. It is difficult to separate the works of E. Taylor , J. Frazer from her. After all, didn't philosophy develop them first, putting forward theories about religion? And the works of K. Marx and F. Engels ? The interaction of sciences is simply obvious. And now scientists of both historical and philosophical sciences are working side by side.
Ethnography and Sociology
E. Durkheim is considered the founder of the school in ethnography (sociological school). His theory of society, the concept of society, is also applicable in ethnography. After all, what is ethnos, if not society? With its cultural and historical ties, a common myth of origin, etc.
It is important to note that the methods of ethnography for the study of peoples are very similar to sociological ones - this is a questionnaire, a questionnaire, observation, etc. Today, both sciences closely interact with each other, using joint and separate works. Modern study of the city (especially the metropolis ) is impossible without sociology. A new discipline has emerged - ethnosociology .
Ethnography and Psychology
Even before they tried to explain one or other beliefs with psychology. One of the first were Z. Freud and CG Jung .
Their works were subjected to harsh criticism (S. Tokarev, Yu. V. Bromley, F. Boas, B. Malinovsky, C. Levi-Strauss and many others). The main reasons are:
- If nations have individual psychology, then how can one explain the similarity of rituals with others?
- The concept of the myth of C. G. Jung . But, if it is variant and is found in different nations and tribes, how can this be explained? Just one way of thinking? Psychology does not find the answers to these questions.
- How to explain certain characteristics of behavior? For example, the US population was rude and ignorant, what has changed? Psychology? - No, it was industrial progress, and as a result, science influenced people.
Thus, it is not psychology itself that affects ethnography, but, on the contrary, ethnography also helps comprehend psychology. After all, a person is very connected with material culture, which leaves an imprint on his thinking.
In the 90s of the 20th century a new direction of psychology emerged within the framework of ethnology - ethnopsychology . According to supporters of this discipline, this is due to the fact that “starting from 60-70. of our century on a global scale, processes have emerged that are characterized by the aspiration of peoples to preserve their originality, to emphasize the uniqueness of everyday culture and psychological makeup, with a surge of awareness among many millions of people of their belonging to a certain ethnic group [29] . ”
These views have caused a negative reaction from prominent ethnographers and ethnologists. So V. A. Tishkov , director of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. N. N. Miklukho-Maklay writes:
The last neophyte pieces in the field of ethnology are the psychologization of ethnos and nationalism, which grew out of the vulnerable romance of S. M. Shirokogorov. Ethnopsychology, which has not broken the umbilical cord with the ethnos, is one of the obsessions that will have to be disposed of for decades ... One of the Russian ethnopsychologists is distressed ... a fine toolkit of ethnic psychoanalysis (for example, the need to introduce during a survey, in addition to groups of Russians and Udmurts, a reference group of people of mixed nationality [30] )? And then all ethnopsychology and "ethnic characters" will crumble from top to bottom [31] .
History of Ethnography
Early history of science
Even in ancient Egypt there were some ethnographic studies, where neighboring peoples were described ( Palermo stone , records on tombs, etc.), later observations from Mesopotamia and early Biblical texts appear. But, the first researcher who applied the method of direct observation, and also honestly described on the basis of their peoples, should be considered Herodotus :
Herodot describes one after another country, subject to the Persian king, speaks about their peoples, conscientiously telling everything that he knows about them: their origin (mainly according to legends), lifestyle, religion, customs ... In general, Herodot, and as a historian, and as a geographer, and as the exponent of abundant ethnographic information, marks a kind of transitional stage - from the style of naively unsophisticated chronicling to scientific research; from gullible retelling of myths - to their rationalistic criticism [32] .
Subsequently, the works on ethnography are supplemented by such researchers as Thucydides , whose material is more scanty, and is also mentioned only with certain events connected with Hellas , Xenophon and others.
Important ethnographic sources are reported by historians of the Roman time: Polybius , Strabo , Pausanias , Democritus, and the "father of medicine" Hippocrates , where he explains the differences between peoples in the geographical environment:
As for the lethargy of spirit and cowardice, the greatest reason why Asians are less belligerent than Europeans, and have a more quiet disposition, are seasons that do not produce major changes either to heat or to cold ... [33]
G.Yu. Caesar left very important works, for example, in the Notes on the Gallic War , the commander, considering the military potential of the Celts, compared them with the Germanic tribes [34] .
The richest ethnographic material was collected by the Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus . Already in his early works, the historian tries to systematize what he saw - where, for example, the peoples of Britain came from, which explains their historical and ethnographic diversity [35] . But especially important is the work “On the Origin of the Germans and the Location of Germany”, which S. A. Tokarev calls: “This is literally an ethnographic monograph, and, apparently, is the earliest in world literature [36] ”. Also noteworthy are the works of A. Marcellinus .
Middle Ages
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the center of science moves to the east - to Byzantium, less affected and affected by raids. This period is marked by the works of such authors as Procopius of Caesarea , who left the most valuable sources about the Slavs [37] , where he gives a description of the life and culture of the Ants and Slavins, their settlement and appearance [38] . In the future, important sources on the history left Jordan , Konstantin Bagryanogenny , Anna Comnenus and others.
Later, sources describing the Crusades , as well as medieval Western European chronicles, for example, Titmar , Adam of Bremen and Helmold, are of particular importance. In the countries of the East, it is possible to distinguish the works of such researchers and travelers as Julian - whose goal was to learn about the fate of the Hungarians after the invasion of the Mongols; Plano Carpini , who wrote the famous “History of Mongols” (Libbelus historicus); Rubruka ("Journey to Eastern countries"). The most valuable information was left by the Venetian Marco Polo , who lived in China for 25 years and whose work The Book of Marco Polo becomes very popular in Europe.
Separately, it should be noted Russian traveler Afanasy Nikitin , who left, after traveling in India and Persia, travel records, known today as Going beyond three seas .
The Age of Discovery
After the discovery of new lands by Europeans, such as sub-Saharan Africa ( Guinea coast , Madagascar , Zanzibar ; America (from modern Mexico and Peru , to areas of the Atlantic coast and Mississippi ), the first ethnographic data about the regions appear. Pedro Martira’s works should be noted “On the New World”, G. F. Oviedo y Valdes , Diego de Landa (“Reporting on Affairs in the Yucatan”) and others.
Bernardin de Sahagun is considered the forerunner of modern ethnographers , for he is characterized by a careful study of the local language, the development of a research plan, the selection of informants, a recording of the informer heard in the language, and a critical attitude to the material [39] . He composed the fundamental work “ The General History of the Affairs of New Spain ” (1547–1577), based on the information of the Aztecs [40] .
It is important, as noted by S. A. Tokarev, that despite the fact that during this period there is a lot of news about nations that were previously either completely unknown, or data on them were stingy, many European travelers and missionaries considered the natives extremely biased, and, as, for example, Diego de Landa, destroyed their culture and writing, considering pagan [41] .
The development of ethnographic science in the XVIII — XIX centuries. Mythological School
At the initial stage, the most complete are the news of the missionaries. Thus, the Jesuit Pierre de Charlevoie is the first to note such a phenomenon as totemism , as well as the matriarchal system or its remnants of many tribes of North America . The data on the ethnography of South America is less saturated, where the work of Martin Dobritzgofer “The History of the Abipons ”, which many ethnographers referred to, and which first described the custom of the “ Quada ”, should be noted.
Despite the fact that some European ships reached Australia and Oceania as early as the 16th century, it was only in the 18th and 19th centuries that a systematic study of these regions began (See: Study history Australia , Oceania ). In the years 1700-1701, Le Gobien’s book The History of the Mariana Islands, the discovery of Easter Island , as well as the works of Louis Antoine Bougainville, were published. Interesting ethnographic material brought and travels of J. Cook and Jean-Francois La Perouse . There is a further study of Africa and Asia.
It was at this time that the cross-cultural method was used for the first time, albeit in the bud state. For the first time it will be used by J. Lafito , G. Forster , Charles de Bross (derived from such a notion as Fetishism, fetishism, the geographical names “Australia” and “Polynesia”).
The most important milestone is the 19th century, in which, along with the further study of the peoples outside Europe, begins to strengthen the knowledge of their identity, intensified after the French Revolution . Especially these views were valid in fragmented Germany , where, after the occupation by Napoleon I of the German lands, patriotic ideology and interest in the distinctive culture of his people grew. One of the first to announce this is I. G. Fichte . Subsequently, the works of Achim von Arnim and C. Brentano appear - one of the first collectors of a folk song, and also for the first time (Arnim) who introduced such a notion as “Volkskunde”.
The whole stage is connected with Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm , collectors of fairy tales, which they considered from the point of view of Indo-Germanism, and also singled out special German fairy tales, for example, about animals, considering them to be inherent only to this people [42] .
The views of the Brothers Grimm were the first to mark the emerging trend - the Mythological School .
Evolutionary School
The founder is Edward Taylor (1832-1917), who wrote the capital work "Primitive Culture" (1871) [43] , where the author draws the following conclusions (the main concept of this school):
- 1. Culture develops along the line of progress from the primitive state to the modern.
- 2. The existing differences between nations are not related to racial differences, but reflect only the achieved level of cultural development.
- 3. All specific cultural elements of each nation were either invented independently, or borrowed from neighbors, or inherited from past eras [44] .
Also E. Taylor owns the introduction of such a thing as a " relic ". For example, a broken mirror , which is rudimentary in nature, but nonetheless the belief that it is to failure still persists.
Also prominent representatives of this school were J. Frazer , L. Morgan , I. Ya. Bachofen , G. Spencer, and others.
Cultural-historical (cultural-anthropological), diffusionism
On the wave of criticism of the theory of evolutionists, many other opinions have arisen.
One of the first was the concept of diffusionism - from the Latin . diffusio - “spreading”, “diffusion” - the theory by which the spread of culture, the course of the historical process depended on contacts between nations, the history of mankind is clashes, borrowings, transfers of cultures [45] .
The following schools of this direction are distinguished:
- Anthropogeographic school - founder F. Ratzel . Its main merit is the allocation of conditions and patterns of cultural phenomena by country, zone. He also first noted the concept of "ethnographic subject" - the phenomena of material culture, indicating the historical ties between peoples:
Tribal kinship, which is blood kinship, we oppose ethnographic kinship, which can rely on a purely external contact, say on intercourse [46] .
Based on the theory of F. Ratzel , new teachings arise: the Freiburg (or Baden) and the Marburg schools. The cultural-historical direction and supporters of cultural circles are distinguished from the Baden school.
- Cultural and historical direction. Representatives - F. Gröbner and paters V. Schmidt . The most important concept of this school is the concept of "cultural circles" - the theory that there are so-called. cultural circles that are composed of elements of a particular culture that have appeared only once in a particular nation (“culture”).
Under the influence of F. Grebner's theory, the so-called The "Vienna School", the founder of which is considered the Catholic father V. Schmidt. He divided cultural circles according to their "archaic" nature. So the very first was the "pygmy". In many ways, the theory of V. Schmidt contradicted F. Gröbner's hypothesis as a geographical, the main reason was the teaching of the Vienna school about “pra-monotheism” - the teaching of clerics about one single god, allegedly present in the most backward peoples, but the relationship with other cultures “distorted” this image, eclipsed the originally pure image of God [47] .
- School L. Frobenius . The main difference from other schools of diffusionism was the doctrine of the “soul of culture” - “paideuma”, culture has its own age - it is born, grows, ages and dies, it is a “living” being. He also belongs to the attempt to classify the first stages of religion, systematizing and mapping "cultural circles". S. A. Tokarev writes:
Frobenius’s unquestionable merit is that he first introduced on a large scale and strictly systematically a method of mapping cultural phenomena. The series of maps attached to his "The Origin of African Cultures" is still of undoubted value [48] .
French School of Sociology
If evolutionists identified the main subject of human ethnography, and diffusionists identified culture, then it originated at the end of the 19th century. "Sociological" school - human society.
Its main representative was Emile Durkheim . In spite of the fact that Auguste Comte was the first to start considering the laws on society, Durkheim was the first to apply them in ethnographic research.
One of the main concepts of the sociological school was the concept of “collective representation” - a set of beliefs and feelings, common to the average members of the same society, form a certain system that has a common life, they do not arise from a person’s personal experience, but are borrowed from the surrounding its social environment [50] .
Important are studies about religion. E. Durkheim believed that a religious worldview divides the world into two halves: the “sacred world” and the “ordinary world”, between which there is an impassable border. The transition between them is possible, but only through a change in one’s own being - initiation , monasticism, asceticism , that is, phenomena in which a person refuses basic needs (cf .: B. Malinovsky’s “basic needs”). The very origin of religion E. Durkheim sees in society, the public environment, God - the expression of forces that must be obeyed, not understanding their origin (cf. the power of kings, princes, etc.)
Emile Durkheim created a whole school in ethnography. His pupil is Marcel Moss - the author of works on “donation”, as a social phenomenon that is not only material, but also intangible (holidays, rites. Wed: dowry , matchmaking , wedding gifts, etc.).
Simultaneously with Durkheim, Levy-Bruhl began his research activities. Based generally on the theory of “collective representation,” he derives the following notion - pre-logical thinking - perceptions of the world of backward peoples through emotions and volitional acts, belief in the mysticism of the surrounding world, a person does not look for an explanation of the world, but perceives it purely subjectively, while “ modern "nations - objectively. Accordingly, the religion is divided into two parts - the actual "religion" and "preligiyu". For schematism (since many of the actions of peoples at a low level of development, acted quite logically), Levy-Bruhl was criticized by many scientists - F. Boas , B. Malinovsky , R. Lowy and others. However, Levi-Bruhl himself pointed out that “pre-logical thinking” is also present in European nations (remnants, rituals, superstitions, etc.) [51]
Franz Boas School
Since the beginning of the 1930s, a new ethnographic school has emerged - the American school of historical ethnology , its founder and creator is the eminent scholar Franz Boas .
Franz Boas believed that it was necessary to compile the history of mankind, for which we must first study the history of each individual people. Most of the American ethnographers (anthropologists) of the first half of the 20th century left the Boas school. Boas' disciples - A. Kreber , A. Goldenweiser, R. Lowy , L. White .
Functional school. Functionalism
Despite the fact that this ethnographic school began to be popular in the 1920s, the French sociologist E. Durkheim had a huge impact on it. The direction is based on the idea of culture as a holistic and single entity, in which each element plays an important role, and the destruction of one of them may violate it [52] .
The task of the ethnographer is not to clarify the history of the origin of certain institutions, but to show their importance in a given society and show it with a specific purpose, not for greater accuracy of description, but to teach the colonial authorities and entrepreneurs dealing with this people. how to handle it to more conveniently achieve its goals [53] .
The founders of this concept are B. Malinovsky (culture serves the needs of the individual) and A. Radcliffe-Brown (culture serves the whole society). Bronislav Malinovsky distinguishes three types of basic human needs: basic (food, etc.); derivatives (distribution of waste products, in the protection of settlements, birth control), integrative (laws, religion, etc.).
Psychological school. Theories of Z. Freud and C. Jung
This direction denotes a whole series of currents, which quite significantly differ from one another. The founder was the famous psychiatrist Sigmund Freud , who was the first to try to investigate peoples from the point of view of psychoanalysis , comparing the psychology of primitive peoples with a child, where the Oedipus complex played the same role [54] [55] .
Despite the criticism of a number of ethnographers (B. Malinovsky and others), this theory has become popular among many psychologists and ethnologists. S. Tokarev calls an important merit the fact that the scientist broke the "taboo" on sexual intercourse, first highlighting this issue in ethnography.
The next stage is connected with the student, who later separated from Freud, the famous psychiatrist and psychologist Carl Jung, who in addition to the individual unconscious will also push the collective unconscious , resulting in the emergence of such a concept as an archetype [56] .
Also representatives of this school were: K. Kereny , M. Eliade ( hierophany ), J. Lacan , G. Roheim (culture is a protective system against the infant fear of separation from the mother, all civilization is neurosis) and others [57] .
Cultural relativism and value theory in American ethnography
The doctrine that emerged after World War II , one of the main ideas of which was the recognition of the isolation of each people, their cultural identity. Representatives of the theory are T. Northrop and M. Herskowitz.
Ethnopsychological School in the United States
Despite the fact that until the 30s of XX century. Franz Boas school dominated in the USA, and a new direction stands out. The main reason was the incompatibility of the rejection by F. Boas of any patterns in the development of a particular area of culture (more precisely, their more detailed study, and not the transfer of all theories to all nations).
Some researchers have tried to find patterns, but unlike evolutionists, not in everyday life (common material culture), but in psychology. And a new school was born - ethno-psychological. Where the basic concepts of this doctrine were:
- The main concept is the individual - personality. It is from him that one should begin to study certain peoples. Not from society in general, but from the individual in particular.
- Institute of childhood. It is the way the child was treated in his early childhood (carrying, feeding, etc.) that influences the emergence of the “main personality”.
- From the concept of “main personality”, one can single out the type of cultures and predict their development. For example, A. Kardiner, the founder of this school, cited the example of the inhabitants of Fr. Alor, where, allegedly, weak maternal care for the child left an imprint on culture (it has already been proved that, on the contrary, women's participation in farming imposed particularities, namely the socio-economic factor, became the basis for separating the culture of these people, and then led to “Weak maternal care”) [58] .
Currently this school is of only historiographic interest.
Soviet school in ethnography
The Soviet school began to use the term ethnography in the 1920s. From 1926 to 1930 the journal Ethnography was published, from 1931 to 1992 the journal was called Soviet Ethnography. At the same time, despite the spread in foreign countries to refer to the science involved in the study of ethnographic problems, the term "ethnology", this term was not widespread in the Soviet literature, and ethnography combined both the descriptive and theoretical aspects of the study of the peoples of the world [59] .
In 1990, the director of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences, V. A. Tishkov, launched an initiative to rename science from “ethnography” to “ethnology”. Despite the renaming of a number of Moscow higher educational institutions, the project was not supported by the ethnographic community: “It was not so easy to decide to rename the institute and discipline as a whole from ethnography to ethnology, if several generations formed the identity of scientists as ethnographers, and the very word“ ethnography “Retained its worthy content” [60] .
The Soviet school was based on foreign studies as well as domestic ones. More K.D. Kavelin 10 years before E. Taylor was the first to single out such a thing as “ relic ” [61] [62] .
It should be noted, and D. N. Anuchina [63] , he first attracted a comprehensive approach to solving complex problems. Also noteworthy are the works of V. G. Bogoraz , L. Ya. Sternberg, and others.
Before the revolution, the main center for the study of nations was the Imperial Geographical Society (later the Russian Geographical Society ). Since the beginning of the XX century. The Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography is beginning to stand out more and more. Peter the Great ( Kunstkamera ), under the direction of V. V. Radlov , the museum coordinated the work of researchers throughout Russia, including in Moscow and Kazan, was the largest ethnographic center in the country.
R. F. Itts writes:
The Great October Socialist Revolution took place in a multinational country. The solution of the national question has become an important concern of the Soviet government. Eliminating all the consequences of the tsarist anti-national policy ..., active socialist construction in the national outskirts of the former empire required scientific knowledge of their level of development ... Soviet ethnographic science and its scientific center, the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography [64], played a prominent role in this revolutionary and transformative activity.
Museums are being opened, as well as ethnographers' courses for the study of national suburbs. VG Bogoraz created the Museum of Religion and Atheism in the Kazan Cathedral [65] .
In 1933 the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was established, since 1935 the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR .
The next stage is associated with Academician Yu. V. Bromley , who headed the Institute of Ethnography, with him the encyclopedia "Peoples of the World" (1966), "Countries and Nations" (1986) was completed. Yu. V. Bromley writes:
Understanding ethnography as a science that studies all ethnic groups at all stages of their historical path makes it responsible for developing the general ethnographic characteristics of the peoples of the world, including their historical ethnography and current situation ... the need to identify the general and the particular in the ethnographic picture of the world involves the study of not only basic ethnic units - of the peoples themselves, but also of ethnic communities of a higher order, as well as of such interethnic complexes, as economic-cultural types and historical-ethno The startup image region [66] .
Separately, it should be noted Sergey Tokarev . An outstanding ethnographer, religious scholar, author of such monographs, which are still key, such as “The History of Russian Ethnography”, “The Origins of Ethnographic Science”, “The History of Foreign Ethnography”, “Religion in the History of the Nations of the World”. The editor and author of most articles on Australia and Oceania, the Indians of America, as well as many peoples of Western Europe [67] .
Thanks to such scholars as S. A. Tokarev, Russian social science of the 20th century. managed to survive under the conditions of a rigid ideological dictate, moreover, relying on the tradition and developing it in the only possible Marxist key at that time, was able to reach the front lines ... Works of real scientists of the Soviet period, among which, undoubtedly, S. A. Tokarev , will remain in the honor of the reading public, since they have firmly entered the golden fund of national and world science, and many already understand that only by reprinting and widely discussing these works, it is possible to preserve the continuity of the Russian scientific tradition [68] .
Academician B.A. Rybakov at the celebration of the 70th anniversary of S.A. Tokarev in 1969 said:
There are three ethnographic institutions in Moscow: the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Department of Ethnography of the Faculty of History of Moscow State University and Sergey Alexandrovich Tokarev [69] .
Modern domestic ethnography continues the works of its predecessors, mostly under the name of ethnography. Ethnographic studies of the culture and behavior of Russian citizens of the XX - XXI centuries. carried out under the name of "cultural anthropology" (see Wikipedia: Cultural anthropology. In Russia)
Neo-Evolutionism
The founders of neo-evolutionism are L. White and J. Steward. In many ways supporting their predecessors (evolutionists), they rejected the unilinear nature of cultural development, offering several concepts of evolution.
Structuralism
It can be divided into two parts: 1. Structural functionalism (derived from the works of functionalists B. Malinovsky and A. Radcliffe-Brown ). One of the founders is E. Evans-Pritchard . At the heart of his theory is the notion that the description of facts is subject to a certain sociological theory. So, for example, the “political system” consists of the base of material production and all social life, the ecological environment, the tribal structure, and the system of age classes. An important concept is “structural space” - the distance is not physical, but based on the tribal relation.
2. French structuralism . The founder is considered Levi-Strauss. His main idea was the unity of the human mind at all stages of development, and strict logical thinking with a predominance of conscious and reasonable. All phenomena in the eyes of people had their own logic.
Other concepts continue to be developed and old ones developed.
Outstanding Researchers - Ethnographers
- Gumilev, Lev Nikolaevich
- Its, Rudolf Ferdinandovich
- Gadlo, Alexander Williamovich
- Tokarev, Sergey Alexandrovich
- Bromley, Julian Vladimirovich
- Frazer, James George
- Levi-Strauss, Claude
- Boas, Franz
- Malinovsky, Bronislav Caspar
- Miklouho-Maclay, Nikolai Nikolayevich
- Taylor, Edward Burnett
- Morgan, Lewis
- Durkheim, Emil
- Mead, Margaret
- Benedict, Ruth
See also
- Ethnography
- Department of Ethnology, MSU
- Department of Ethnography and Anthropology, St. Petersburg State University
- Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay RAS
- Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after Peter the Great
- Russian Museum of Ethnography
- Mythology
- Ethnology
- Story
- Anthropology
Notes
- ↑ Great Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. Ed. 2nd, pererabot. and add. M .; SPb., 2000.
- ↑ The indigenous population of Kamchatka is the Chukchi. Ethnography of Kamchatka. Kamchatka Krai, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky - local history site about Kamchatka
- ↑ See other: Valery Tishkov :
It should be noted that the IEA and the Kunstkamera refer to these faculties and departments according to the decisions of ethnographers (ethnologists) who are in them [1] . It should also be noted that it was the “split in the ethnographic community” that gave rise to the “emergence of surrogate textbooks” - Sadokhin, Grushevitskaya; Tavadova; Stefanenko et al .:Anthropologists have numerous connections with history and its workshop (ethnologists, ethnographers), including meaningful ones (historical ethnography remains the main genre of domestic studies), institutional ones (IEA and Kunstkamera as institutes belong to the Department of History and Philology, departments exist within the framework of historical faculties ... etc
Recently, there have been many textbooks on the ethnology of other authors (meaning not classical academic publications by S. A. Tokarev, V. E. Markov, V. V. Pimenov), but they are either the modest works of the epigones of the Soviet ethnographic school, or unsuccessful and hasty compilations of neophyte artisans who are ready to write textbooks on any subject as soon as it appears in the curricula of universities or schools. An example of the first option is a textbook by T. V. Mastyugina and L. S. Perepyolkina, an example of the second is a textbook by A. P. Sadokhin and T. G. Hrushevitskaya (neophyte artisans) V. A. Tishkov. Requiem for ethnos
- ↑ V. S. Buzin, Associate Professor of the Department of Ethnography and Anthropology, St. Petersburg State University, in the preface to his work, writes:
About two decades ago, due to certain changes ... the desire to rename the sphere of knowledge in the national science associated with the study of such a phenomenon as ethnos began to appear. The traditional name “ethnography” was proposed to change according to a “Western” pattern, since it allegedly testified to our backwardness: while we are only describing (“grafo”), they are studying there (“logos”). This trend has resonated, which was expressed in a number of renames ... Meanwhile, supporters of such a renaming do not take into account (or do not know) that the description of the subject already represents its study. The scientific “grafo” is already “logos” ... It is foolish to assert that geography should be the lowest level of geology ... Traditions of national science should not be broken for the sake of the moment ( Buzin VS From the author // Russian Ethnography: Tutorial / Ed. VI Sedykh; LS Lavrentyeva .. - St. Petersburg : Publishing House of St. Petersburg University, 2009. - P. 3-5. - 421 pp. - ISBN 978-5-288-04812-8 . )
- ↑ Paradoxes of Ethnology (inaccessible link) . peoples-rights.info. The date of circulation is October 5, 2010. Archived July 24, 2012.
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. Ethnography of the peoples of the USSR. M., 1958 p. 3-10
- ↑ R.F. Its. Decree page 5
- ↑ Ethnophagy and ethnology in the humanities (inaccessible link) . ahey.narod.ru. The date of circulation is October 5, 2010. Archived March 26, 2010.
- ↑ V.A. Tishkov. My initiatives
- ↑ ibid. See also Requiem for ethnos.
- ↑ History of the Faculty of History of the AltSU
- ↑ Department of Ethnography and Museology - Omsk State University
- ↑ Department of Ethnography and Anthropology - Faculty of History, St. Petersburg State University - AbNews.ru - business news agency
- ↑ Priv.po: Tribe, nationality, nation: Social .- Philos. researches / Berkovich Naum Aryevich. SPb .: Science, 2001.
- ↑ Yu. K. Bromley. On the question of the essence of an ethnos // “Soviet Ethnography”. 1970
- ↑ Tutorial / Ed. Yu. V. Bromley and G. E. Markova. M .: Higher. school, 1982. - 320 p.
- ↑ Ethnography // Great Soviet Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. B. A. Vvedensky. 2nd ed. M .: State. scientific from the “TSB”, 1955. T. 49. p. 249-255.
- ↑ Field ethnography
- ↑ Gromov G. Methodology of ethnographic expeditions. - M .: MSU, 1966 p. 10-12
- ↑ N. N. Cheboksarov, I. A. Cheboksarov. Peoples, race, culture. M .: Science 1971 p. 169
- ↑ N. N. Cheboksarov, I. A. Cheboksarov. Peoples, race, culture. M .: Science 1971 p. 169-221
- ↑ Classification of races (phenotypes)
- ↑ Platonov Yu. Peoples of the World in the Mirror of Geopolitics
- ↑ Arctic (or Eskimo) minor race
- ↑ Mongoloids (Asian race)
- ↑ Siberian race
- ↑ Its R.F. p. 93
- ↑ Department of Ethnography and Anthropology
- Stefanenko T. G. Ethnopsychology
- ↑ See also: The example of V.A. Tishkov with an Azerbaijani guy born in Moscow, where the historian raises the question of his ethnicity - after all, he does not speak the national language, and in culture and life does not differ from other Moscow teenagers.
- ↑ V. A. Tishkov. Requiem for ethnos. pp. 18-22
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. The origins of ethnographic science. M .: 1978 p. 15-1
- ↑ Ibid st. 33
- ↑ See other: Notes of Julius Caesar and his successors (Translated and edited by M. M. Pokrovsky) M .: 1948, there are more recent reprints
- ↑ See other: Modestov V. I. Tacitus and his writings. Historical and literary research. St. Petersburg, 1864
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. The origins of ethnographic science ... p. 39
- ↑ archive.org
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. Decree. cit. pp. 47-49
- ↑ SAAGUN Bernardino - Megaencyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius - Article
- ↑ Sahagun, 2013 .
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. The origins of ethnographic science. pp. 78-85
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. The origins of ethnographic science ... pp. 135-137
- ↑ It was published in Russian as “Myth and ritual in primitive culture”. Smolensk .: Rusich, 2000 - contains only selected pages
- ↑ Its R. F. Introduction to Ethnography: Study Guide. L., 1991 p. 133
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. History of foreign ethnography. M .: Science, 1978
- ↑ Ratzel F. Anthropogeographie, 2-r Teil, 2-te Auflaqe, 'S. 393 Pech.po: S. Tokarev. History of foreign ethnography. M., High School, 1978
- ↑ Tokarev S. А. The history of foreign ethnography. Moscow, Graduate School, 1978, Its R.F., Introduction to Ethnography: Study Guide. L., 1991 pp. 136-137
- ↑ Tokarev S. А. The history of foreign ethnography. M., High School, 1978
- ↑ Durkheim E. Sociology. Its subject, method and purpose
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. History of foreign ethnography. M .: 1978 pp. 211-219
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. History of foreign ethnography. M .: 1978, pp. 226-228
- ↑ Functionalism as a way to learn cultures
- ↑ Malinovsky B. К. The Basics of Ethnography. Warsaw, 1946. p. 87. Pech.po: Itz R.F. Introduction to Ethnography: A Tutorial. L., 1991 p. 140
- ↑
According to Freud, the origin of culture is associated with the "murder of the primitive father." Freud draws the following picture, far from idyll: the primitive horde, the despot father, possesses all women and does not allow his sons to approach them. Attraction sons eventually leads to the murder of his father and eating. Subsequently, the sons experienced tremendous guilt and imposed a ban on incest - incest within the gens and on parricide. Both prohibitions formed the so-called "Oedipus complex", which is inherited and is the basis of culture. Since then, culture has become nothing more than a system of norms and prohibitions, where there is a psychological conflict - unconscious forces tend to break all prohibitions and go for aggressive actions or incestuous love, and conscious (rational) moral norms learned from childhood restrain them. The higher the stage of cultural development, the more complicated social behavior becomes and the psyche becomes a “seething cauldron of excitement” - hence wars, revolutions, and crimes. And since, according to Freud, the cultural process is a special modification of the life process that occurs under the influence of the tasks Eros puts on the person and under the influence of Ananke - external necessity, then the loss of happiness became the price of progress - fulfillment of sexual attraction. (Its R. F. Introduction to Ethnography: Study Guide. L., 1991 p. 141)
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev has a more detailed criticism: “The improbability of this whole Freudian concept is striking. It is hardly necessary even to criticize this strained - simply fantastic - assumptions about the sons who ate their father and immediately repented. The extravagant Atkinson hypothesis was not divided by any ethnographer or divider. Freud himself was to some extent aware of the unlikelihood of his assumption. At the end of the book, he unexpectedly retreats from this hypothesis and proposes another, less fantastic one: perhaps, he says, there was no murder and devouring of the father, but there was only that very familiar to us, repressed death wish of the father. "... Only impulses hostile to the father, the existence in the fantasy of wanting to kill him and eat could already be enough to cause the moral reactions that created the totem and the taboo." S.A. Tokarev. History of Ethnography
- ↑ See: C. G. Jung. Soul and myth. Six Archetypes Mn .: Harvest 2004
- ↑ Yu. V. Bromley. Code of ethnographic concepts and terms. Т.2 p. 172-174
- ↑ History of foreign ethnography. M., High School, 1978
- ↑ Ethnography / textbook ed. Yu. V. Bromley and G. E. Markova
- В. Blog V. A. Tishkov
- ↑ S. A. Tokarev. History of Russian ethnography. M., Science, 1966
- ↑ Kavelin Konstantin Dmitrievich
- ↑ Anuchin D. N. About the people of Russian science and culture. 2nd ed. - M., 1952
- ↑ R.F. Itts. Introduction to ethnography. L .: Leningrad State University 1991, p. 146
- ↑ Now they have returned the churches again, all the meetings are scattered around other museums, partially lost and in a deplorable state
- ↑ Yu. V. Bromley. Modern problems of ethnography. M .: 1981 p. 61
- ↑ When the question arose of who would write these articles, the director of the Institute of Oriental Studies and the chief scientific secretary of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, S. P. Tolstov, proposing to write one or another article, came to the conclusion that there was no one to write except S. A. Tokarev. The phrase is still famous: “Sergey Alexandrovich, how will you take it? - I will take what to do) ".
- ↑ Tradition binder thread. A.N. Krasnikov / S.A. Tokarev. Religion in the history of the peoples of the world. M .: Republic 2005, p. 7-16
- ↑ “I can’t speak at lectures what contradicts my views!”
Literature
- Bernardino de Sahagun , Kuprienko S.A. General story about the affairs of New Spain. Books X-XI: Knowledge of Asteks in Medicine and Botany / Ed. and trans. S. A. Kuprienko .. - K .: Vidavets Kupriinko SA, 2013. - 218 p. - (Mesoamerica. Sources. History. Man). - ISBN 978-617-7085-07-1 .
- Bromley Yu. V. Ethnos and Ethnography. - M .: 1973
- Bromley Yu.V. , Markov G.E. Ethnography. - M .: MGU , 1982
- Gromov G. G. Methodology of ethnographic expeditions. - M. 1966.
- Its R.F. Introduction to Ethnography: Study Guide . - L .: Publishing House of the Leningrad University , 1991
- Pimenov V.V. Basics of Ethnography: a program of discipline. - M .: MSU , 1988.
- Pimenov V.V. Basics of Ethnology: Textbook . - M., Moscow State University 2007.
- Tishkov V. A. Requiem on Ethnos: Research on Socio-Cultural Anthropology . - M .: Science 2003.
- Tokarev S. А. The history of Russian ethnography. - M .: Science , 1966.
- Tokarev, S. A. The Origins of Ethnographic Science. - M .: Science , 1978.
- Tokarev S. A. The history of foreign ethnography. - M .: Higher school , 1978.
- Tokarev, S. A. Ethnography of the Peoples of the USSR. Historical foundations of life and culture. - M .: MGU 1952
- Cheboksarov N. N. , Cheboksarova I. A. Peoples, Races, Cultures. - M .: Science , 1971
- Shternberg L. Ya. ,. Ethnography // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron : in 86 tons (82 tons and 4 extra.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
Links
- Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology named after N. N. Miklukho-Maklay
- Russian Museum of Ethnography in St. Petersburg
- Museum of Ethnography and Anthropology named after Peter the Great
- Methods used in the study of ethnoculture
- Ethno magazine
- Ethnography of the Peoples of Russia (Publications on Ethnography)
- Semenov Yu. I. The subject of ethnography (ethnology) and the main components of its scientific disciplines
- Commission of Ethnography of the Moscow Center of the Russian Geographical Society
- Ethnography Articles
- Ethnographical museum
- Museum of Ethnography in Mogilev