Pamir ( Pamir Tajiks [4] [5] , Primir Tajiks [6] [7] ) - a collection of small Iranian peoples inhabiting the highlands of Pamir - Hindu Kush , divided between Tajikistan , Afghanistan , Pakistan and China . They speak the heterogeneous Pamir languages of the East Iranian group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family . Most of the Pamiris are united on a religious basis by the confession of Ismailism .
Pamir peoples | |
---|---|
Abundance and area | |
Total: approx. 300 thousand [3] | |
Tajikistan ( Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region ): 135,000 Afghanistan ( Badakhshan ): 45,000 Pakistan ( Gilgit-Baltistan , Chitral ): 44,000 China ( Tashkurgan-Tajik Autonomous County and adjacent areas - 23,350 people (84% of the county's population)): 41,028 (total in the PRC, trans. 2000) [1] Russia : 363 (2010) [2] | |
Tongue | Pamiri languages , also Tajik and Dari |
Religion | Islam , mainly Ismaili Shi'ism , to a lesser extent, Sunniism of the Hanafi kind |
Related peoples | Pashtuns , Ossetians , Tajiks , Hunza , Kalash |
Origin | Iranian |
Resettlement
The western, southern and eastern Pamirs , joining the Hindu Kush in the south, represent the highland valleys with a rather severe climate, almost never descending below 2,000 m above sea level and surrounded by steeply covered with eternal snow ridges, the height of which approaches 7,000 m. To the north of the Hindu Kush watershed, valleys belong to the upper reaches of the Amu Darya (Upper Kokcha , Pyanj , Pamir , Vakhandarya ). The eastern slopes of the Pamirs belong to the Yarkand river basin, to the south of the Hindu Kush the Indus basin, represented by the Kunar (Chitral) and Gilgit rivers, begins. Administratively, this entire territory, which has long been an eclectic, but a single area, was divided between Tajikistan , Afghanistan , Pakistan and China as a result of expansion in the XIX century. The Russian , British and Chinese empires and their satellites (the Bukhara and Afghan Emirates). As a result, the ranges of many Pamir peoples turned out to be artificially divided.
The historical areas of the Pamirs serve as ethno-geographical units: Shugnan , Rushan , Ishkashim , Vakhan , Munjan , Sarykol - in general, initially coincided with the peoples formed in them. If, in terms of material and spiritual culture, the Pamirs due to the thousand-year mutual contacts became much closer to each other, the study of their languages shows that different Pamir peoples came out of at least four ancient East Iranian communities, only remotely related to each other and brought to the Pamirs independently.
Geography and climate in places of settlement
Badakhshan ( Pers. بدخشان / taj. Badakhshon , Chinese . 巴達克 山 - “Mountains of Badakh”) - the historical region of Pamir , located on the territory of south-eastern Tajikistan - Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region , and north-eastern Afghanistan - Badakhshan province.
The total area of Badakhshan is 108159 km², the population is 1.3 million people.
The Afghan part of Badakhshan (Badakhshan province ) - 44,059 km², 884,700 people. Most of the province is occupied by the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and Pamir . Vegetation typical for the province includes meadows and birch forests . Alpine meadows and mountain deserts are characteristic of more highland areas. To the south of Faizabad, the territory is a semi-desert , the main vegetation in which are thorny bushes and acacias .
Tajik part of Badakhshan ( Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region ). - 64,100 km², 216,900 people. Most of the territory of GBAO occupies the highlands of the Eastern Pamirs (the highest point is the Peak of Ismoil Somoni , the former Peak of Communism (7495 m)), because of which it is sometimes called the “Roof of the World”. On the mountain slopes there are powerful firn fields and glaciers with a total area of 136 km².
To the west and northwest of the summit is the Pamir firn plateau , one of the longest high-altitude plateaus in the world. The plateau stretches from east to west for 12 km. The width of the plateau is 3 km. The lowest point of the plateau is located at an altitude of 4700 m, the upper - at an altitude of 6300 m.
Pamy-speaking peoples
The classification of the Pamir peoples is usually based on the language principle.
Northern Pamirians
- Shugnan-Rushanians are a group of peoples inhabiting adjacent valleys, speaking closely related languages, dialects , which allows them to communicate tolerably understand each other; Often, the Shugnan language is used as the inter-valley Shugno-Rushan language.
- Shugnan - Shugnan ( taj. Shuanon , Shugn. Xuɣnůn ) - part of the valley r. Panj near Khorog , the valley of its right tributaries ( Gunt , Shahdara , Bajuv ). The right bank of the Pyanj River belongs to the Shugnan and Roshtkala districts of the GBAO of Tajikistan , the left bank to the Shignan district of the Afghan province of Badakhshan . Leading ethnos of the Pamirs, numbering approx. 110 thousand people, of which approx. In Afghanistan 25 thousand
- Rushan - Rushan ( taj. Rushon , rush. Riẋůn ), the region below Shugnan along the Panj river at the confluence of the Bartang river. The right bank part is located in the Rushan district of the GBAO of Tajikistan , the left bank is in the Shignan district of the Afghan province of Badakhshan . Total strength - approx. 30 thousand people It also includes small adjacent groups with separate languages and separate self-consciousness:
- Khufs - Khuf ( taj. Khӯf , khuf. Xuf ) southeast of Rushan;
- Bartang - middle and upper course. Bartang ;
- Roshors - Roshorv ( taj. Roshorv , Rosh. Rōšōʹrv , self-name rašarviǰ) - upper course of Bartang .
- Tajiks of Xinjiang ( whale. 塔吉克语 Tǎjíkèyǔ «Tajiks") inhabit Sarykol ( Uig. ساريكۆل, whale. 色勒库尔 Sèlēikùěr) in the valley Tiznaf ( Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County ) and the upper Yarkand in Xinjiang China . Number approx. 25 thousand people
- Yazgulians are the people inhabiting the Yazguli valley (in the language of yazgulians - Yuzdam ) in the Western Pamirs and referring to the Caucasoid race .
Southern Pamirians
Southern Pamirians are a relict group of people south of Shugnan, speaking two closely related languages, dialects:
- Ishkashimi - Ishkashim along the banks of the Panj ( tadzh. Ishkoshim , Ishk. Škošіm ): the village of Ryn in GBAO ( Ishkashim district ) and the village of Ishashim in the eponymous district of Afghan Badakhshan . OK. 1500 people
- Sanglitz - Valley r. Varduj in Afghan Badakhshan , the left tributary of the Panj , with the main village of Sanglech. The number is critical (100-150 people.). To the north of Sanglech, in the Zebak region, Zebak used to exist, which is now completely supplanted by the Tajik ( Dari ).
- Vakhantsy - historically inhabit the Wakhan region ( taj. Vakhon , wah. Wux˘ ), which includes the upper course of the Pyanj and its source Vakhandarya . The left bank of the Panj and the Vakhandarya valley (the Vakhan corridor ) belong to the Vakhan district of Afghan Badakhshan , the right bank to the Ishshim district of the GBAO of Tajikistan . In the 2nd half of the XIX century. The Wakhans also settled widely south of the Hindu Kush - in the valleys of the Hunza , Ishkoman , Shimshal ( Gilgit-Baltistan ) and r. Yarkhun in Chitral ( Pakistan ), as well as in the Chinese Xinjiang : Sarykol and on the Kilian River (west of Khotan ) [8] . The total number of Vakhans is 65-70 thousand people.
- Munjans ( Dari منجی munǰi , munj. Məndẓ̌i˘ ) inhabit the valley of the r. Munjan in the upper river Kokcha ( Kuran-va-Munjan region in Afghan Badakhshan ). Number - approx. 4 thousand people
- Yidga ( Urdu دغہ , Yidga yiʹdəγa) - part of the Mundzhans who migrated across the Hindu Kush ridge in the XVIII century. to the Lutkuh region of Chitral ( Pakistan ). Number - approx. 6 thousand people
Close and Neighboring Nations
Tajik-speaking Pamirians
From the west, the valleys of the Pamir peoples are surrounded by territories occupied by Tajik- carriers of Badakhshan and Darvazian dialects of the Tajik language ( Dari ). Badakhshantsy- Tajiks are largely close to the Pamirs proper. In some areas, the Tajik language supplanted the local Pamiri languages in historical time:
- Yumgan ( Dari یمگان , Yamgan , the eponymous district of the province of Badakhshan ) - in the XVIII century. ( shugnan language )
- Zebak ( Dari زیباک , the eponymous district of the province of Badakhshan ) - in the XX century. ( zebak )
In addition, in the massif of the Pami-speaking peoples there are Tajik-speaking groups of villages:
- Region Goron ( taj. Horon ) on the river. Panj between Ishkashim and Shugnan (right bank in Ishkashim district of GBAO )
- Right bank Vakhan (4 villages).
Neighboring Nations
In addition to the Tajiks , the fate of the Pamir peoples turned out to be closely related to the Dhards of Kho , the most Iranian Dard people inhabiting the upper reaches of the Chitral River ( Kunar ), and the Burishs , a non-Indo-European isolated people of the r. Gilgit Long-term neighborhood and perception of Ismailism from the Pamiris made these people very close in the field of spiritual and material culture. In addition, the Pamiris, Kho, and Burishas draw together the common substrate heritage of the pre-Indo-European aborigines of the Pamir-Hindu Kush, the remnants of which are the burishas , manifested in language and culture.
The Central Pamirs (mainly in the eastern part of GBAO ) is an unsuitable for agriculture plateau, inhabited by nomadic Kirghiz , which the Pamirs also regularly encounter on high pastures. Kyrgyz ethnic territory separates Sarykol from the rest of the Pamiris.
Language and educational situation
The language of interethnic communication in Gorno-Badakhshan is Tajik. As officially [5], so according to linguistic experts [8] .
The Tajik language is for the Pamiris the language of religion ( Ismailism ), folklore, written literature, as well as a means of communication between different Pamir peoples speaking different languages.
In addition to the Tajik language, the Shugnan language and to some extent the Wakhan language are common in communication between different nations [9] .
Shugnan language has long been playing the role of the language of oral communication between the Pamiris [10]
At the present stage, there is a marked expansion of the Tajik language, which, for example, is actively pushing the Wakhan language out of all applications, including the family sphere [8] .
The Wakhan language, as colloquial, holds a dominant position in all of Wahana. Communication between the Vakhans and the Tajik-speaking population of Vakhan, as well as the Vakhans and Ishashimi, is usually conducted in the Vakhan language [9] .
For some Pamir ethnic groups living in China, the language of interethnic communication is Uigur and Chinese . In Afghanistan, such is Dari and to a lesser extent Pashtu [9] . According to the Constitution of Afghanistan, the Pamir languages are the official languages in the places of compact residence of the Pamiri people.
Ethnogenesis and history
The origin of the Pamiri speakers speaking in diverse Eastern Iranian languages is associated with the expansion of the nomadic Saks , which took place, in all likelihood, in several waves, in different ways, and various Iranian-speaking communities that were distinguished outside the region participated in the settlement of the Pamirs [3] . One of them, the Pravans, was initially close to the Sokas of Khotan and Kashgar and penetrated into Vakhan, apparently from the east - from the Alai Valley . In historical time, the Kyrgyz came along the same path to the Pamirs. Praishkashimi formed in Tajik and Afghan Badakhshan and penetrated here from the south-west. Mundzhan language demonstrates the greatest affinity with the Bactrian language and more distant - with Pashto . Probably, the Mundzhans are a remnant of the Bactrian community , who survived in the mountains like the lambs of the Sogdians . According to the dialectal division, the Northopamir community, which broke up into Vandzhians, yazgulyamtsy and Shugnan-Rushanians, penetrated into the Pamirs from the west along the Pyanj and its expansion ended in Shugnan . Approximate dates of the beginning of Iranianization of the region (according to linguistic data and archaeological excavations of Saki burial grounds) - VII-VI centuries. BC er [3] Pravantsy and praishkashimy are the earliest waves. It should be noted that initially the Pamirs inhabited only the Pyanj basin and its tributaries. The expansion of the Sarykolians to Xinjiang , Yidga and Vakhanians - to the Indus Valley dates back to a later era.
Long since, probably long before Iranization, the Pamir Mountains were one of the main suppliers of lapis lazuli and ruby for the ancient world. Nevertheless, the life of the ancient Pamiris remained very closed. The isolation of the Pamiris was interrupted since the 2nd century. BC Oe., when the establishment of Central Asian-Chinese relations through the valley of the Panj was established caravan trade, called the Great Silk Road (in the form of its southern segment). Numerous attempts to conquer the Pamirs by world empires ( Sassanids , Turks , Chinese , Arabs , Mongols , Timurids , etc.) either failed or ended only with temporary successes and the establishment of a nominal dependence on external power. In fact, until the XIX century. Pamir regions were independent or semi-independent principalities.
During the Great Game and the struggle for Central Asia after 1895 , the Russian Empire and the Emirate of Afghanistan , which was under the influence of the British Empire , finally approved the frontiers of the zones of influence, in the east of Central Asia, the border passed along Pyanj. At the same time, the Wakhan corridor departed to Afghanistan as a buffer between the Russian and British empires. The Russian government helped its dependent Bukhara emirate subjugate the Pamirian principalities. Border on the river. The Panj between Afghanistan and Bukhara, and later the USSR as a matter of fact, passed “on the living”, dividing the Pamir peoples along the river banks and interrupting the intra-valley connections.
Religion
With the establishment since the end of I millennium BC. er Zoroastrianism began to exert a strong influence on the polytheistic Iranian beliefs of the ancient Pamirs. Binding of this religion to the solar cults was reflected in the naming of the sun in Ishashim language remozd, originating from the name of Ahura Mazda (* Ahura-Mazdā-). The positions of Zoroastrianism in Shugnan were especially strong, where open temples of fire were built on the hills, some of which operated up to the XIV century. [11] Legends about ancestors- “fire-worshipers” and “ kafirs - siyavushah ” (distorted under the influence of the name of the Iranian hero taj. Siöp « sh “dressed in black”) are still popular in the Pamirs.
Another important religion of the Pamirs was Buddhism , which penetrated here from India by a caravan route. The positions of Buddhism were especially strong in Wakhan, through which Buddhist preachers from India and pilgrims from Khotan and China moved en masse.
Islamization of Central Asia after the Arab conquests in the VIII — IX centuries. practically did not touch the Pamir peoples. The widespread penetration of Islam into the masses took place only in the XI-XII centuries. and is connected with the activities of the active leader of the Ismaili current and the outstanding Persian poet Nasir Khosrov (1004-1088), who fled from the Sunni persecution of the Pamirs and found refuge with the ruler Yumgan (Yamgana, the valley on the left bank of Shugnan ). Nasir Khosrov, widely respected during his life and after his death, became the spiritual mentor of the local population and initiated widespread propaganda of Ismailism in other Pamir regions.
Ismailism left a big imprint on the spiritual culture of the Pamiris and is still one of their ethnic symbols. An important role in Pamir society was assigned to feasts and caliphs - spiritual mentors. Relations with the Ismaili head of the whole world, Aga Khan, which began to be broken off after Tajikistan gained independence, were interrupted during the Soviet period. Nevertheless, the Ismailis living in the People's Republic of China, the Sarykol and Vakhans, are still in religious isolation.
Ethnic Identity
Proceeding from the similarities in customs and traditions (ethnic community) and from the confessional community (that is, belonging to Ismailism), all small peoples of the Pamirs call themselves “Pamiris” - taj. to put up In the minds of both the Pamiris and Tajiks themselves, this concept is associated not with a regional, but primarily with a language, cultural and confessional belonging to a particular community. Tajik-speaking inhabitants of the Pamirs - Darvazians and Vandzhis who profess Sunnism, do not identify themselves as Pamiris, while the Tajik-speaking Goronites-Ismailis consider themselves Pamiris [5] [12] .
According to studies of the Soviet and post-Soviet period, outside the Gorno-Badakhshan region (GBAO), representatives of the Pamir peoples from GBAO call themselves “Pamir Tajiks” [4] [5] [13] .
Regarding ethnic identity outside of GBAO, for example among labor migrants in the Russian Federation , two types of self-determination are characteristic [5] :
- for contacts with state bodies (law enforcement and immigration agencies) - to submit to Tajiks according to passport data, based on considerations of nationality (Tajiks are citizens of Tajikistan) and partly ethnicity (85% of Pamirians did not consider themselves Tajiks in the survey);
- among compatriots (natives of GBAO) - exclusively “Pamirians”, with specifying the nationality (Rushan, Vakhan, Ishkashim, etc.).
According to an anonymous Pamir poll conducted in Tajikistan by representatives of the NKO Memorial who did not call themselves, the Tajik authorities implement a policy of imposing the image of a “Tajik man”, which means the union of all citizens of Tajikistan, regardless of ethnicity, under the generalized concept of Tajik ethnicly . According to the respondents, the Pamirians refuse to recognize themselves as Tajiks [14] .
Researchers of the ethnic identity and ethnicity of the peoples of the Pamirs [3] note that there is no definite answer to the question of the ethnicity of the Pamiris, which is explained both by objective and subjective circumstances. In their opinion, objectively the ethnic identity of the Pamiris does not quite fit into the framework of the accepted criteria. Subjective circumstances arose after the fact that, for ideological reasons, the ethnic characteristics of the peoples of the Pamirs were deliberately denied. They argue that for the Pamiris the concepts of national and ethnic affiliation are unequal.
In the minds of the Pamiris, nationality is associated with attributing oneself to a broader than a local ethnic community, to an ethnocultural community of kindred peoples, in relation to which the ethnonym Tajik has been around for a long time. In the classical period, this ethnonym was used as a synonym for the word Iranian [15] [16] [17] , especially in poetry, where the concept of “ Turkish tokik ” meant not a specific ethnos in the modern concept, but representatives of the Turkic and Iranian peoples in general. [18] [19] . As you can see, the ethnonym Tajik in this case is used in two meanings: first, it defines the genetic and ethno-linguistic community of people for whom Farsi-Tajik language is native, and secondly, in a broader sense, this word means genetic and cultural commonality of a number of Iranian-speaking peoples of Central Asia (with the exception of Pashtuns), which is quite comparable with the concept of "Slavs" and "Slavic nationality" [3] .
Scientists note [3] that the concept of “national identity” is just one, the top, level of ethnic identity of the Iranian-speaking peoples of the Pamirs. But this does not mean that the residents of the “Roof of the World” have no other ethnic identity or, besides the peculiarities of speech, they do not see any other signs of ethnic identity. On the contrary, this feeling is strongly developed among the Pamirians, and it gives them the opportunity to distinguish several other local communities of people.
The first and initial level of ethnic self-consciousness of the small peoples of the Pamirs is a sense of community common only to them. That is, the unity of people who have the same language, lifestyle, the same traditions and customs; All of them also have some similar psychological characteristics, and in their mentality they differ from the peoples around them. According to these signs, they consider themselves primarily Shugnan, Rushan, Bartan, Sarykol, Ishkashim, Mundjan and Vakhan . It is this level of self-consciousness that reflects their ethnicity , since it implies the most monolithic community of people, whose history goes back more than 2 thousand years. All common features of an ethnos are inherent in this community [3] .
Settlement and Housing
The specific habitat with a complex relief was the most important natural-geographical factor in the construction of settlements and the formation of the architecture of a given nationality. In addition to the specific relief, folk architecture was influenced by a dry, contrasting temperature climate. The long warm period of the year is characterized by an almost complete absence of precipitation and sharp daily fluctuations in temperature. The cold period is set in November and lasts until April. The minimum temperature in winter is −30, the maximum in summer is +35. The temperature regime varies in height. The abundance of water sources provides irrigated agriculture, and meadows in the side canyons at an altitude of more than 3000 m - distant pasture cattle breeding. (Mamadnazarov 1977: 7-8) Pronounced building traditions determine the regional character of settlements, estates, and apartment buildings. When choosing the place of settlement, the possibilities of rockfalls, avalanches and flood waters were taken into account. The traditional form of settlement of the Pamiris is the village. With a large amount of land suitable for farming, the dwellings in the village are located freely, with every house there is a yard of greater or lesser size and very often gardens and small sections of fields.
There are villages in which dwellings are located in several groups at a considerable distance from each other, creating the impression of individual hamlets connected to each other by common canals between which stretches of fields and gardens almost continuously stretch. In such farms usually live closely related families. If the village is located in an awkward location for farming, then the location of the dwellings is very concentrated. There are almost no yards in such a village, and the dwelling steps are located along a mountain slope. Such dervins are usually found in narrow mountain gorges. The water supply of the villages is different. According to the sources of supply and use of water, villages can be divided into three categories: 1 - villages that use water from mountain springs; 2 - using water mainly from turbulent mountain streams and rivers; and 3 — using very long canals running from afar with a more or less slow flow of water. The dwelling of the Pamiris, despite the apparent monotony, represents, however, very significant differences, depending on the natural building resources, climate, everyday skills, and on the social and property status of its owner. Usually the dwelling is one-storied, but if it is located on a steep slope, sometimes a shed is arranged below. Attached second floor is very rare in larger and richer houses. The building material is usually the earth (loess or clay) from which walls are laid. In the villages, located in narrow gorges on stony soil, where the loess of roads is not easily accessible, most of the dwellings and all outbuildings are made of clay-bound stones. The basis for the roof is a few logs laid on the walls, on which the flooring of poles is laid, covered with earth and clay above. Inside the building the roof is supported by pillars. The dwelling is usually divided into winter and summer premises. The winter part - hona - is a square or rectangular room, most of the floor of which is raised in the form of a platform or earthenware bunks, which serve for sleeping, seating, etc. In the passage between the plank beds under the hole in the ceiling, covered with wooden bars. A small door leads into the hone, either from the street or the yard, or from the summer room. The window for the passage of light is a hole in the wall, which usually has a wooden sash.
Until the 1930s, almost no glazed windows in mountain villages. For heating the room there is a pit for making a fire, which is used to bake bread (cakes). Food is prepared in the hearth, which is a notch in the form of a cone cut from above and to the side, with smooth walls and a wider bottom. A fire is set at the bottom of the excavation, and a flat, wide boiler is placed on top. Why arranged either in a special elevation in the corner or along one of the walls, or in the aisle, thicker than nar. In hone, in winter, young cattle and birds are kept, for which a special room is arranged on the side of the entrance, which is closed by a door. It is necessary to mention the so-called. “Summer residents”, where cattle are stolen for the summer and where most of the women of the village with small children live for several summer months, preparing dairy products for the future. For housing are small huts, built of stones, often not smeared and not warmed. Almost every village has a mosque, except for the smallest (Ginzburg, 1937: 17-24).
The houses of the Pamiris are not like the dwellings of other nations. Their device remains unchanged for many centuries, passing from generation to generation. Each architectural element of the Pamir house has its esoteric meaning - pre-Islamic and Islamic. Every element of the house matters in a person’s life. The house embodies the whole universe, reflecting the divine essence of man and the harmony of his relationship with nature. The pamir house is supported by 5 pillars. They are named after 5 saints: Muhammad , Ali , Fatima , Hassan and Hussein . Pillar Muhammad - the main house. It is a symbol of faith, male power, the eternity of peace and the inviolability of the home. Around it is placed in the cradle of a newborn boy. Pillar Fatima - a symbol of purity, the keeper of the hearth. During the wedding near the pillar, the bride is dressed and decorated to make her as beautiful as Fatima. Ali's pillar is a symbol of friendship, love, loyalty, agreements.When the bridegroom brings the bride to his house, they are seated near this pillar so that their family life is full of happiness and they have healthy children. Pillar Hassan serves the earth and protects it, taking care of its prosperity. Therefore, it is longer than the other pillars and is in direct contact with the ground. Pillar Hussein - a symbol of light and fire. Near his prayers, religious texts are recited, the namaz and the ceremony of lighting a candle (“charogravshan”) are performed after a man’s death. The four-stage vault of the house - “chorkhona”, symbolizes 4 elements: earth, water, wind, fire.
Marriage and Family
Наиболее архаичной формой семьи у памирцев являлась большая патриархальная семья, основанная на принципах агнатного родства. Неразделённость хозяйства являлась основой существования большой семьи, которая в свою очередь была основана на совместном владении землей. Во главе такой семьи стоял старейшина, распоряжавшийся всем имуществом, распределением работ в семье и другими делами. Внутри семьи господствовали патриархальные отношения, младшие беспрекословно подчинялись старшим, а все вместе старейшине. Однако с проникновением в районы расселения памирцев товарно-денежных отношений общинный уклад был подорван, что привело к разложению больших патриархальных семей. На смену патриархальной семье пришла семья моногамная, сохранявшая ещё в той или иной мере патриархальные отношения.
С установлением Ислама было легализовано превосходство мужчины над женщиной. Согласно шариатным нормам муж имел преимущество в деле наследования, в качестве свидетеля, было узаконено право мужа на развод. Фактически положение женщины в семье зависело от степени её участия в производстве, сельском труде, поэтому в горных районах, где женщина принимала большее участие в производительной деятельности, её положение было относительно более свободным. Значительную роль у памирцев играли родственные браки, они стимулировались также и по экономическим причинам. Особенно излюблены были кузенные браки, главным образом, женитьба на дочери брата матери и дочери брата отца.
У памирцев первой церемонией связанной с браком являлось сватовство. Следующим этапом бракосочетания была помолвка. После сватовства и помолвки жених и невеста начинают скрываться от своей новой родни. В течение года собирается и уплачивается отцу невесты весь калым, в его сборе отцу жениха помогают родственники. Калым носил, главным образом, натуральный характер. Брак матрилокальный (Кисляков 1951: 7-12). В качестве следов матрилокальности брака остаётся обычай, по которому невеста после свадьбы пребывает в доме мужа только 3-4 дня, а затем возвращается в дом отца и фактический брак начинается здесь. (Пещерева 1947: 48)
Традиционная пища
В связи с преобладанием земледелия над скотоводством мясо употребляется в пищу редко, мясных кушаний мало, и готовятся они очень примитивно. Основными продуктами питания являются пшеница в виде муки (лапша, клецки, болтушка, лепешки), в дробленном виде (для густой или жидкой каши), фрукты, грецкие орехи, бобовые и овощи, овечий сыр и кислое молоко, чай с молоком, с добавлением сливочного масла (чай тибетских лам), по памирски «ширчой». Чай с молоком пили часто, а сливочное масло могли позволить себе только зажиточные люди. Кушанья из пшеницы или муки варятся с овощами, фруктами; мучные блюда никогда не варятся с мясом. К ритуальным кушаньям принадлежат блины, havlo, ozaq — кусочки теста жаренные в масле, и «кашк» — каша, приготовляемая из пшеницы, фасоли, гороха и чечевицы во время обжига посуды, причем горшок, в котором варится кашк, ставится у кучи обжигаемой посуды и кашк должен быть сварен на этом огне. Его едят только мастерицы и другие женщины, а мужчинам его не дают. (Пещерева 1947: 48)
Традиционные занятия
- Земледелие, скотоводство
- Основное занятие памирцев- земледелие высокогорного типа при искусственном орошении в сочетании с животноводством. В крестьянском хозяйстве имелись коровы, овцы и козы, реже лошади и ослы. В высокогорных районах, как исключение, можно было встретить яка, называемого «кутас» (хуẋгоw). Скот не отличался хорошим качеством, был маловыносливым и низкорослым. Годовой цикл ухода за скотом разделялся на два основных периода: зимнее нахождение скота в кишлаке, в хлеву и пастьба скота на летних пастбищах (йеел), вдали от кишлака, далеко в горах. Между этими основными периодами вклинивались два других коротких периода, падающих на весну и осень, когда скот свободно бродил по ещё незасеянным или уже сжатым кишлачным полям или отгонялся на скудные травяные участки вблизи кишлака.
Быки и ослы весной на пастьбу не выгонялись, так как в этот период они нужны были в кишлаке для земледельческих работ.(Кисляков 1949: 38-39) Области расселения памирцев отличаются крайним малоземельем. Большую часть земель занимают так называемые бросовые земли(ледники, скалы, крутые склоны, нагромождения камней). Ирригационная система своеобразна: от магистрального оросительного канала спуск воды осуществляется серией водопадов или сбросов. Из них вода по каналам отводится на вспаханные поля и оросительные борозды. (Моногарова 1972: 52)
- Традиционные промыслы
- Домашние промыслы — главным образом обработка шерсти, выделка тканей, узорное вязание из цветной шерсти длинных носков, кошмоваляние, обработка дерева, ручное женское гончарство, охота, изготовление ювелирных украшений, кузнечное дело. Обработкой шерсти занимались женщины, взбивали шерсть тетивой специального небольшого лука и пряли на ручном веретене, а также на прялке обычного среднеазиатского типа. Тканье было традиционным мужским занятием. Ткани для одежды ткали на горизонтальном стане. Из шерсти коз и яков обычно зимой мужчины ткали полосатые безворсовые ковры, для этого употреблялся вертикальный ткацкий стан. Кошмы выделывали преимущественно женщины. Развита была обработка рога, особенно диких козлов. Из рога изготовляли рукоятки для ножей, гребни.
- Среди памирских народов популярна национальная борьба — гуштингири (к, астингире), напоминающая самбо. В современном спорте представители памирских народов проявляют себя в таких видах спорта как волейбол, футбол, гандбол, самбо, бокс, бои без правил и другие единоборства.
Notes
- ↑ The Tajik ethnic minority 塔吉克族-56个民族 (недоступная ссылка) . Дата обращения 23 августа 2010. Архивировано 21 марта 2012 года.
- ↑ Всероссийская перепись населения 2010
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Лашкарбеков Б. Б. Памирская экспедиция (статьи и материалы полевых исследований). (недоступная ссылка) / Отв. ed. Н. М. Емельянова . — М.: Институт востоковедения РАН , 2006. — 272 с. — ISBN 5-89282-291-5
- ↑ 1 2 Моногарова Л. Ф. Памирцы: народности или субэтносы таджиков? // Советская этнография : Журнал с периодичностью 6 раз в году. — М. : Наука , 1989. — № 5 . — С. 28-35 . — ISSN 0038-5050 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Каландаров Т. С. Памирские мигранты-исмаилиты в России. — М. : Наука , 2005. — 26 с. — («Исследования по прикладной и неотложной энтологии» Института этнологии и антропологии РАН ). - 10 000 copies — ISBN 5-201-13758-x .
- ↑ БСЭ, 1975, т. 20, стр. 590, статья «Припамирские народности»
- ↑ БСЭ, 1976, т. 25, стр. 169, статья «Таджики»
- ↑ 1 2 3 И. М. Стеблин-Каменский. Этимологический словарь ваханского языка. - SPb. : Петербургское востоковедение, 1999. — С. 5—10. — 480 с. - 500 copies — ISBN 5-85803-093-9 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 Пахалина Т. Н., Лашкарбеков Б. Б. Ваханский язык // Иранские языки III. Восточно-иранские языки / под редакцией Эдельмана Д. И.. — М. : Индрик, 2000. — С. 175. — 343 с. — («Языки Евразии»). - 600 copies — ISBN 5-85759-107-4 .
- ↑ А. Грюнберг, И.Стеблин Каменский. Атономия ГБАО: миф или реальность? // Памир : журнал. — 1989. — Февраль ( № 2 ).
- ↑ Н. М. Емельянова. Народы Памира и Гинудкуша
- ↑ Моногарова Л. Ф. Преобразования в быту и культуре памирских народностей. М, 1972.
- ↑ Моногарова Л. Ф. Из полувекового опыта этнографического народов Средней Азии // Этнографическое обозрение : Журнал с периодичностью 6 раз в году. — М. : Наука , 2003. — № 4 . — С. 119-136 . — ISSN 0038-5050 .
- ↑ Альтернативный отчет о выполнении Таджикистаном Конвенции ООН о ликвидации всех форм расовой дискриминации в связи с рассмотрением 9-11 периодических докладов РТ за 2012-2015 гг. www.adcmemorial.org. The appeal date is November 17, 2018.
- ↑ John Perry. TAJIK i. THE ETHNONYM: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION (англ.) . Encyclopedia . Iranica (July 20, 2009).
«By mid-Safavid times the usage tājik for 'Persian(s) of Iran' may be considered a literary affectation, an expression of the traditional rivalry between Men of the Sword and Men of the Pen. Pietro della Valle, writing from Isfahan in 1617, cites only Pārsi and ʿAjami as autonyms for the indigenous Persians, and Tāt and raʿiat 'peasant(ry), subject(s)' as pejorative heteronyms used by the Qezelbāš (Qizilbāš) Torkmān elite. Perhaps by about 1400, reference to actual Tajiks was directed mostly at Persian-speakers in Afghanistan and Central Asia; …»
- ↑ John Perry. TAJIK i. THE ETHNONYM: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION (англ.) . Bayhaqi, ed. Fayyāz, p. 594 . Encyclopedia Iranica (July 20, 2009).
Iranians soon accepted Tajik as an ethnonym, as is shown by a Persian court official's referring to mā tāzikān «we Tajiks»
- ↑ John Perry. TAJIK i. THE ETHNONYM: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION (англ.) . Dabirsiāqi, pp. 3377, 3408 . Encyclopedia Iranica (July 20, 2009).
…the Qarakhanid Turks applied term Tajik more specifically to the Persian Muslims in the Oxus basin and Khorasan, who were variously the Turks' rivals, models, overlords (under the Samanid Dynasty), and subjects (from Ghaznavid times on). Persian writers of the Ghaznavid, Seljuq and Atābak periods (ca. 1000—1260) adopted the term and extended its use to cover Persians in the rest of Greater Iran, now under Turkish rule, as early as the poet ʿOnṣori, ca. 1025
- ↑ CE Bosworth / BG Fragner. "Tājīk" (англ.) . Encyclopaedia of Islam .
«…In Islamic usage, Tājīk eventually came to designate the Persians, as opposed to Turks […] the oldest citation for it which Schraeder could find was in verses of Dj alāl al-Dīn Rūmī …»
- ↑ Niẓām al-Molk: tāzik, pp. 146, 178-79; / Fragner, «Tādjīk. 2» in EI2 10, p. 63:
The distinction between Turk and Tajik became stereotyped to express the symbiosis and rivalry of the (ideally) nomadic military executive and the urban civil bureaucracy
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