Courier, Paul-Louis

Early years and military service

Born in Paris in the parish of Saint-Eustache in a wealthy bourgeois family ^[4] , which in fact was already on the verge of the nobility. So, his father signed the Courier de Merée ( Fr. Jean-Paul Courier de Méré ), and the young man was preparing to become a military officer in that class-representative era when it was necessary to present more or less reliable evidence of his noble origin in order to count on production and promotion ^[5] . His father was forced to move from Paris to the provinces due to scandalous history: he was nearly killed by an associate of a very distinguished person who suspected him in connection with his wife and who owed him a large sum of money ^{[6] [7]} .

From his youth he was fond of ancient literature and ancient languages ^[8] . He achieved particular success in learning the Greek language, which he was taught by the Hellenistic Vovilier, a professor at the College de France . In 1791, Courier moved to Chalon-on-Marne , where in 1792 he entered the Artillery School, where two years later he went out as a lieutenant of engineering troops and was sent to serve in the garrison of Thionville ^[9] .

During his military service he took part in the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. In June 1795, with the rank of captain of artillery, he was at the headquarters of the army commander near Mainz , where he received news of his father's death; without asking for leave in the proper way and without warning anyone, he “immediately leaves to rush into the arms of his mother, who lives in La Veronica near Liouin in Touraine” ^[9] . According to Sainte-Beuve , Courier during his service in the army was generally characterized by "indiscipline, as well as the tendency to leave his post without permission":

According to Sainte-Beuve, in the military service of the Courier "neither war nor love for his craft inspire". Being "a man of Revolution and belonging to the generation of 1789," he appreciates the benefits that "brought with him a coup, and later will defend them, but he is not one of those who are able to pull them out by force or conquer", but his true passion the study of ancient Greece : "Between the Republic and the Consulate , between the Consulate and the Empire, he chooses the Praxitele " ^[9] . A. Pleshcheyev in his essay on the biography and creativity of Courier, also noted his ambiguous attitude to service in the army, about which he wrote as follows: “Here begins the military life of Courier, perhaps the most original and strange, which only the chronicles represent revolutionary wars and a great army . And this without exaggeration <...> Courier was a hero of another kind. A soldier on duty, who received the concept of his craft, like Bonaparte on the school bench, he feels a deep disgust for the war, but nevertheless remains what his upbringing and events have done ” ^[6] .

In 1808, Courier requested leave to arrange his personal affairs, but without receiving it, he resigned. Nevertheless, during the preparation and conduct of the Austro-French War of 1809, he, without any official appointment, joined the headquarters of the artillery general as his friend, but the horrors of war and the enormous human losses during the Battle of Wagram finally prevented him from military service ^[6] . Courier irrevocably left military service in 1810 and devoted himself entirely to philological research and research. On the whole, Courier was negative about military service, and later he was checked against desertion during the “absence” in Florence. Already in Sovety Colonel ( fr. Conseils à un Colonel , 1803), in fact his first political pamphlet, published only after his death, he mocked the "heroes" of 18 Brumaire , Bonaparte and his confidants, who "only know how rob, drink and plunder ” ^[10] . Comparing Napoleon with the Roman emperor Nero , Courier proclaims that in their quest for unlimited power, both of them did not disdain by any means: “Do the words“ master ”and“ kind ”,“ master ”and“ righteous ”agree? - asks the Courier rhetorically. “Yes, they are grammatically consistent, as an honest thief and a just robber.” ^[10]

Courier generally doubts the existence of military art and the genius of the commanders who have glorified themselves in this matter. In his "Conversation at the Countess of Albany" (1812), he expresses a categorical judgment, "unfavorable for the military and favorable for artists, writers and poets," and does not believe in the talents of famous military leaders, both past and present, as well as in the "great people "in general ^[9] . He was critical of Napoleon’s activities. His statement about the coronation of Napoleon , which, in particular, leads in his monograph E. V. Tarle, became famous: “Some thought that Napoleon had reduced his fame by wishing to add another title to his name that rattled all over the world. “To be Bonaparte and after that become an emperor! What a drop! "- Paul Louis Courier, a well-known publicist and pamphletist who survived this moment, who survived this moment exclaimed" ^[11] .

Service in Italy. Work on the novel "Daphnis and Chloe"

Working in La Medicienne’s Medici Library in Florence , Courier found a unique manuscript of the pastoral Greek novel Daphnis and Chloe , with one of the central places missing in previous editions, and later translated it into French, reprinted after numerous corrections and clarifications in Florence in 1810 ^{[12] [9]} .

In the first book of the novel there was an omission, as previously thought before him, only a few lines, but which actually turned out to be six or seven pages. According to Sainte-Beuve: “For anyone who knows how difficult it is in our day to discover something really new in the almost exhausted area of antiquity , it is clear that it was a wonderful find that can deeply delight the soul of an erudite. Fate this time turned out to be supportive of the Courier, she revealed to him in an ancient writer what he would have willingly composed himself ” ^[9] .

While working with the book, Courier spoiled the manuscript with ink filled with ink between sheets, then shut the manuscript, and a few days later an ink spot was found on the very place of the manuscript where the previously unknown fragment of the novel was, and, if it were not for the Courier misstep, The Florentine manuscript could fill this pass ^[13] .

This incident caused a considerable resonance, both in Italy and in the entire philological scientific world, and the debate about the intention and degree of guilt of Courier continues to this day. The fact is that the valuable manuscript of the end of the 13th century (Gr. Conventi Soppressi 627, or Laurentianus A), corrupted by a French researcher, was the only copy in which there was a fragment that was missing in all other known manuscripts of this novel. This pass was named in Philology “the great lacuna ” ( Latin magna lacuna ) and made one of the places in the first book of the novel incomprehensible, and the unique Florentine manuscript filled this gap ^[12] .

The courier managed to copy the corresponding fragment before it was damaged, but the ink spots left by him (the scale of damage increased even more after the stain was unsuccessfully attempted to be removed with hydrochloric acid ), it was spoiled in that place in the manuscript (folio 23 verso), which was absent in all other sources , so that the only way to judge the lost text is now a copy of the Courier ^[12] . Thus, the damage to the document made the subsequent researchers of the novel dependent on its reading and translation offered by Courier, and “made his very name forever tied to Daphnis and Chloe” ^[12] . Francesco Del Furia, the librarian who helped the Courier in his work, and later the main initiator of the scandal and the accusations against him, wrote about it angrily ^[12] :

This incident caused numerous accusations against Courier in the malicious intent of his actions, the deliberate distortion of the manuscript, that he was going to seize the exclusive right to a new edition of the novel. In Italy, anti-French patriotic propaganda began to spread among academia and the public: “Complaints began to pour into local newspapers, brochures began to appear, and the storm grew. In a short period of calm, reigning over Europe, this blot was whispered from Rome to Paris ” ^[9] . Against the background of the Napoleonic wars and the occupation of Italy (as well as the fact that Courier himself was an army officer), all this gave this scandal a tinge of "militaristic" vandalism and excesses in the conquered territory. In addition, the Italian authorities have forbidden Courier to publish the text copied by him in any form. Courier began to defend himself, arguing in favor of the unintentional actions of his actions, thus a whole controversy arose on this issue, which became the property of the entire reading European public ^{[9] [12]} .

In his defense, Courier addressed the readers in the pamphlet “An Open Letter to the Book Publisher to Mr. Renoir about one spot made on the manuscript from Florence” ( fr. Lettre à Renouard sur une tâche faite à un manuscrit en Florence , 1810) ^[12] . In this pamphlet, giving arguments in his defense, Courier with “uncommon eloquence ironically banned the publication of the copy made by him and the absurdity of the hype bloated around the sad but apologetic mistake” and, in particular, wrote ^[12] :

The attacks on Courier were encouraged by the Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Eliza Bonaparte , Napoleon’s sister, who is believed to be outraged that Courier refused to dedicate her translation to her. By order of the French Minister of the Interior, the translation of “Daphnis and Chloe” was confiscated by the Roman police, and the military ministry, for its part, took the opportunity to punish the obstinate officer who left military service ^[6] . “Two ministers are chasing me on their heels,” Courier told in a letter to his friend (September 1810). “One wants to shoot me for desertion, the other to hang me for stealing Greek manuscripts” ^[10] . In the end, Paul-Louis Courier had to make a promise to the imperial authorities to refuse further statements in the press ^{[6] [10]} .

This incident and the controversy that unfolded around him drew attention to the personality of the French Hellenist and his translation: “As is often the case, the“ gerostrat's ”Courier Act, which spoiled the ancient text of Daphnis and Chloe”, provided him with an ink spot. The spoiled pages became a kind of landmark of the Florentine library, attracting many curious people. " ^[13] . Sent-Bev commented on this subject as follows:" You can still see the famous blot in Florence, where it is shown along with a handwritten testimony from Courier, that he planted it by mistake People who have personally familiarized themselves with these documents endure, as I have been told, a slightly different impression than the one created by the readers of the pamphlet, but to an ordinary reader who has heard only one of the parties, ore does not recognize the rightness Courier " ^[9] .

Courier translated the new passage, which he skillfully stylized under the syllable of Jacques Amyot , who translated the novel in 1559, and included it in his text, reprinted after numerous corrections in Florence (1810). The book was published in small circulation - only 61 copies ^[12] . In September 1810 in Rome he published (although also a very small circulation of fifty copies) and the full Greek text of the novel with the text restored from its copy ^[12] . In the period from 1813 to 1821, five more French-language editions of the novel appeared in Paris, on the cover of which were the names of Amyot and Courier, and the publications themselves were preceded by Courier's praise and the full text of his pamphlet ^[12] . This translation has earned high praise from I. Goethe , who spoke in 1830 about him the following ^[14] :

Later researchers of Long's novel noted that the Courier translation most likely corresponds to the original source, although it may contain distortions and some inaccuracies. Among the arguments in favor of the consciousness of actions, Courier is usually referred to the following: it is either Courier’s desire for fame, obsession with scandalous fame, or, as the modern biographer of Currie admits, the latter’s “ depressive and irritable autodestructive mindset” ^[12] .

Information about this incident reached Russia. So, in 1831, the Moscow Telegraph publishes a biographical sketch and two excerpts from his writings. It also told the famous story with a damaged fragment of the manuscript - clearly sympathetic to the Courier and mocking the librarian Del Fury: "angry at Courier for his discovery made before the nose of a gray-haired guardian of this rarity who never noticed it" ^[12] .

The writer and well-known bibliophile Charles Nodier noted the merits of the translation carried out by the French Hellenist: “In general, Courier emulates with equal success both the ancient and the new; thus, in the translation of the passage from Long in question, he very similarly reproduced the style of Amyot. ” ^[15] In a dispute over courier’s liability for damage to the manuscript, Nodier generally supports the position taken by Antoine-Augustin Renoir and his publisher ^[15] :

According to the modern Russian philologist and semiotics KA Bogdanov , Kurye’s posthumous recognition and reputation as “a brilliant stylist, a liberal and a fighter against injustice who was prosecuted and even imprisoned for several days”, has generally put off the story of the ill-starred blot: “ But for the history of classical philology, this incident itself can be considered symbolic and typologically correlated with losses, which determine our very knowledge of antiquity. The ink spilled by the Courier absorbed another fragment — in a series of innumerable multitude of ancient texts not reaching us ... ” ^[12]

Return to France

Returning to France, Courier in December 1815 purchased a forest plot in Touraine with an area of ​​about 250 hectares in the hills of Verets , before the revolution, owned by the Tours Archdiocese , and three years later, he bought the estate and the large farm Chavonniere ( Fr. Chavonnière ), in which he settled with his young wife ^{[16] [17]} . According to Sainte-Beuve, Courier’s life and work are sharply divided into two parts - until 1815 and after his return to France ^[9] :

After the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, royalist reaction raged in the country, and Courier, despite being considered an anti-Bonapartist, began to actively defend the interests of the peasantry against the supporters of the king, the police and bureaucracy, church institutions and became widely known after a number of pamphlets on this topic. “Petition to both houses” ( fr. Pétition aux deux Chambres , 1816) drew the most attention - about the abuse of police authorities and priests - and 10 letters to “ Censeur Européen ” (1819-1820), in which Courier defended the peasants against the nobility and the clergy and spoke for the liberal monarchy . Later , A.I. Herzen attributed it to the greatest liberals of that time ^[18] .

In 1820, the legitimists offered to open a subscription to buy the Chambord castle from the new owner and present it to the Duke of Bordeaux, the newborn heir to the French throne ^[10] . The Courier responded to these events with his “ Simple Discours de Paul-Louis etc. " ^[19] , where he offers to sell the castle to small landowners, and the sale offers to implement the so-called" black gangs " ^[20] ." This work is regarded as one of his most brilliant pamphlets, for which he was sentenced to imprisonment in St. Pelagis for insulting public morality and the king's persona ^[8] . In the course of this trial and press coverage, he received wide support and fame. So, in a letter to his wife, he conveys the words of his friend Beranzhe : "In the place of Mr. Courier, I would not have given these two months to one hundred thousand francs," and the newspapers that readily printed his speeches doubled their circulation ^{[9] [21]} . Stendal sent to his prison his “History of Painting in Italy” with the inscription: “The creator of the portrait of Jean de Broe ^[22] is a sign of respect” ^[10] .

After being released, Courier retaliated to the judges with the ingenious pamphlet Aux âmes dévotes de la paroisse de Veretz and publication of his Process ( Procès , 1821). According to his literary merit, Courier had the right to be elected to the Academy ; he nominated his candidacy for the place of his deceased father-in-law, but closed his way there with a caustic letter against her (Letter to Messrs. Members of the Academy of Labels and Elegant Literature, fr. Lettre à Messieurs de l'académie des Inscriptions , 1819).

Courier sought political activity, but was defeated in the elections in 1822, after which he wrote several more political pamphlets under transparent pseudonyms. “Answer to Anonymus, who wrote letters to P.-L. Courier and others. ”( Fr. Le livret de Paul-Louis, vigneron, etc. Réponse aux anonymes, qui ont écrit des lettres à P.-L. Courier ). In the Pamphlet on Pamphlets ( fr. Pamphlet des pamphlets , 1824), he presents his concept of the genre of pamphlet vivid examples, which for him are the Letters to the Provincial by Blaise Pascal . Also Courier here explains his political role and predicts his violent death. In general, Sainte-Beuve characterized Courier's pamphlets in his own words, spoken to him about the Napoleonic Egyptian expedition : “ Peu de matière et beaucoup d'art ” ^[23] . Sainte-Beuve also described in his essay, noting that Courier will remain in French literature as a completely original and one-of-a-kind writer, and that “Courier’s spiritual structure was not particularly sublime; moreover, I would say that his mind was not particularly latitude and he did not have a definite point of view on everything, ”he wrote about him in 1852:“ He is a skillful writer, and sometimes even admiring by his subtlety: by this he rises above others, and this explains his fame ” ^[9] .

Circumstances of Death

On April 10, 1825, Courier’s body was found in his forest Larsa ( la forêt de Larçay ) in Touraine ^[16] . In a conspiracy of revenge and mercenary motives, several employees of his farm and forester, who were threatened with dismissal by the owner of the forest, entered. The main initiators of the conspiracy were the Dubois brothers, the former Courier employees, whom he dismissed, among other things, for having an affair with his wife, and one of the main reasons was the desire to return his unfaithful wife to the management of the estate, since it was believed that he even wanted to conclude her monastery. While her husband was in Paris, she condoned the peasants who plundered the host forest, and therefore had wide popularity among them. In addition, Courier wanted to dismiss the Fremon forester and hire another, more stringent in relation to local residents, which he advertised in the local newspaper. There was a rumor that on April 9, that is, on the eve of the murder, a local peasant “court” sat in the tavern, at which it was decided to kill the landowner, who, in their opinion, unduly oppressed them ^[16] . The crime was committed by the forester with the help of Senforien Dubois (died 1827), who killed the Courier in the forest with a shotgun at close range. After the murder was committed, several other conspirators came to the scene of the crime - only six people. The death came from multiple through wounds made by rifle bullets. From the wounds, scraps of paper wrenches penetrated into the body of the Courier. When the wads were deployed and examined, it turned out that these were pieces of the newspaper " Feuilleton littéraire ", which the murdered man received. Thus, the investigation concluded that someone from his household was the killer. However, in 1825, neither the murderers nor the reasons for the murder were established, as the court failed to obtain the necessary testimony from the incriminating murderers, although their identities were in fact known to the whole district. Thus, the court did not come to any conclusion, and the process was terminated ^[16] .

A few years later, on the basis of the testimony of a casual witness, the servants of the Courier were accused of committing the crime: “She told who killed and who was present, the forester confessed to the crime, and the whole process confirmed once again that it was a conspiracy in which many people participated - workers farms, foresters, local peasants, the owner of a kabak and almost the entire population of the region ” ^[16] .

Closely aware of and highly appreciating him, Stendhal responded to his death with a sympathetic obituary in the English magazine London Magazine, where he called Courier one of the "most educated people of France" and a profound connoisseur of Greek. According to Stendhal, in connection with the death of Courier, national literature “will not be able to suffer greater losses” ^[21] :

Literary critic and translator B. G. Reizov calls the Courier killing one of “the most significant events in the criminal chronicle of the Restoration era”, which was of great political importance. The circumstances of this sensational case are reflected in Balzak’s late novel The Peasants. Also according to Reizov: “Pamphlets, petitions, appeals to judges, statements and memoirs of Paul-Louis Courier, as well as the story of his life and death, served Balzac not only as a source of information, but also as a basis for large sociological conclusions, for building a whole philosophy of modern society. However, in the work and biography of the Courier, he gathered materials for plotting and imaging. It would be impossible to distinguish between those forms of influence of cognitive and artistic ” ^[16] .

Criticism and evaluation of creativity

Courier was a master of the word, and although the essence of his pamphlets lost its former meaning, for a long time he remained an interesting writer thanks to the amazing artistic finish of every little thing written by him. According to Balzac, Courier “created the menatippa of today's satire ” ^[24] . Courier highly appreciated his talent as a pamphletist Friedrich Engels , putting him on a par with recognized masters of this genre in French literature: caste groups, which did not prevent these “rudeness” from being recognized as outstanding and exemplary works of literature ” ^[25] . В первую очередь Курье был известен как непревзойдённый автор памфлетов, которые получили высокие оценки со стороны критиков и читающей публики: «Эти брошюры, делающие честь французскому прозаическому языку, наделали не меньше шума, возбудили и удовлетворили не меньше страстей, чем песни Беранже. До сих пор они с увлечением читаются всеми любителями французского остроумия и изящного слога» ^[5] . Памфлеты Курье получили известность и в России. Так, П. А. Вяземский по прочтении его работ записал в своих записных книжках: «Как хорош Поль Луи Курье (Paul Louis Courrier)! Надобно о нём написать статью. Письма его смесь Галани , Даламберта , Байрона . Не говоря уже о грецицизме их», а через несколько дней внёс следующее дополнение: «Сегодня день довольно пустой. Один Courrier своими памфлетами наполнил его. Что за яркость, что за живость ума. Вольтер бледен и вял перед ним» ^[26] . Особенную популярность его памфлеты получили среди российских народников , в этот период его публицистика была востребована и актуальна в России, её сравнивали с сатирой М. Е. Салтыкова-Щедрина ^[27] . Позже Максим Горький относил Курье к величайшим сатирикам мировой литературы ^[10] и упоминал его в романе « Жизнь Клима Сангина ».

В литературоведении отмечается необыкновенно богатый словарный состав памфлетов Курье, как книжно-письменного, так и разговорного языка, который черпается и пополняется им из самых разнообразных областей человеческого и общественного знания и быта. Во многом этот широкий лексический диапазон Курье обусловлен большим разнообразием затрагиваемых в памфлетах проблем и тем: «Курье в них пишет о крестьянах, королях, священниках, придворных, жандармах, судьях, министрах, депутатах, солдатах. Он пишет о войне, о религии, о свободе печати, о выборах и о многих других проблемах, которые волновали его современников» ^[28] . Следует отметить, что во времена творческой деятельности Курье прослеживается отчётливая тенденция к демократизации литературного языка через его сближение с разговорным, что в целом было характерной чертой французской литературы первых десятилетий XIX века. По мнению филолога М. М. Ивановой, основной языковый пласт, из которого Курье черпает лексику своих памфлетов, — это общелитературный язык, одинаково широко употребляющийся в разговорной и письменной речи, а его лингвистический идеал — язык простого народа Франции: «Однако Курье не считает, что для разговора с народом нужно быть просторечным ( populacier ). Наоборот, по его мнению, простой народ — творец языка и он имеет право на самый лучший, самый правильный и чистый французский язык» ^[28] . С его точки зрения: «Если поэтический язык и не совпадает с народным,— говорил Курье,— то он всегда развивается на его основе» ^[10] .

Кроме того, отмечается, что Курье обогатил лексику привлечением и восстановлением незаслуженно полузабытых слов и выражений предшествующих эпох, что ставит его в один ряд с такими «архаистами», как Шарль Нодье и Теофиль Готье ^[5] . Несмотря на критику писателя из-за чрезмерного злоупотребления архаизмами, принципы его работы в области перевода были для того времени новаторскими и плодотворными, получив высокую оценку Стендаля, Бальзака и Гёте ^[10] .

По мнению Стендаля, со времён Вольтера «ни один писатель не мог приблизиться к г-ну Курье в сатире в прозе, ни один человек не написал таких превосходных памфлетов. Его петиция в пользу „Крестьян, которым запрещают танцевать“ — это один из шедевров нашего языка. Памфлеты его мало известны за пределами Парижа. Газеты почти никогда не осмеливались писать о них. Кроме того, большинство редакторов газет ревниво относились к превосходству его ума и его таланта» ^[21] . Анатоль Франс в своём литературном эссе «Стендаль», сравнивая его и Курье, писал, что, по его мнению, никто во времена Бейля хорошо не писал, французский язык был безнадёжно испорчен и любой писатель начала XIX века писал плохо: «… за исключением одного только Поля-Луи Курье; но это особый случай» ^[29] . По мнению Франса: «Поняв, что французский язык погиб, Поль-Луи Курье смастерил для собственного употребления наречие при помощи отрывков из Амио и Лафонтена . Это совершенно обратное тому, что сделал наш миланец; оба писателя настолько несходны друг с другом, насколько это возможно для современников» ^[29] . Анатоль Франс неоднократно упоминает Курье в своих книгах, а в романе «Восстание ангелов» ( фр. La Révolte des anges , 1914) один из главных героев книги говорит, что знаменитая клякса, которую Курье «посадил на флорентийской рукописи, представляет собой, так сказать, литературный документ».

Гёте, которого очень интересовали творчество и личность Курье, оценивал его следующим образом ^[14] :

• В его честь названы лицей в Туре и улица в 7-м округе Парижа, переименованная в память о нём в 1879 году ^{[30] [31]} .
• История с чернильным пятном, поставленным Курье в рукописи, приводится Гастоном Леру в его романе «Кровавая кукла» ( фр. La Poupée sanglante , 1923).
• Обстоятельствам смерти Курье посвящён французский художественный фильм « » ( фр. La Ferme des sept péchés , 1949).

• The Complete Works of Courier with the Foreword by A. Carrel (1830).
• In the Russian translation in 1957 his Pamphlets were published.

• Anisimov I. I. (ed.). Paul-Louis Courier // History of French Literature in 4 volumes. - M .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1956. - T. 2. 1789-1870. - pp. 120-134. - 733 s.
• Bogdanov KA. From the history of blots: Philological observations. - M .: New Literary Review, 2012. - 216 pp., Ill. - (Scientific appendix. Issue. CVI). - ISBN 978-5-86793-941-0.
• Courier, Paul-Louis . Pamphlets - M .: Fiction, 1957. - 366 p.
• Plescheev A.N. Paul-Louis Courier, his life and works // Contemporary . —1860. - T. 84. - pp. 251-278.
• Potapov A. Artistic originality of political pamphlets P.-L. Courier / / From the history of Western European literature XVIII-XX centuries. - M., 1957.
• Reizov B.G. Balzac and Paul-Louis Courier. (On the sources of the novel “Peasants”) // Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences: ser. literature and language. - 1969. - V. 28, no. 6. - p. 513-523.
• Struve P. B On different topics. (1893-1901 gg.): Collection of articles. - SPb: type. A.E. Kolpinsky, 1902.
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