Phonosemantics

Assumptions about the existence of separate semantics in the sounds of a language have been repeatedly made in the history of human thought: in particular, this idea was already developed by Mikhail Lomonosov , who indicated in Rhetoric (1748) that:

Of the consonants, hard k , n , t, and soft b , d , e have a dull pronunciation and have neither sweetness nor strength in them, if other consonants are not tied to them, and therefore can only serve to depict stupid living actions having a lazy and muffled sound, what is the knock of cities and houses under construction, from the clatter of horses and from the cry of some animals. Solid c , f , x , c , h , w, and fusible p have a clear and swift pronunciation, for which they can contribute to a better presentation of things and actions strong, great, loud, scary and magnificent. Soft w , s and fusible in , l , m , n have a gentle pronunciation and therefore are decent to the image of gentle and soft things and actions ^[3] .

According to G. A. Gukovsky , “each sound has, according to Lomonosov, its own substantial energy. But this energy in itself is not rational, but emotional. Moreover, it carries a clear sign of the irrational ” ^[4] .

A detailed interpretation of the meanings of individual sounds was proposed by Velimir Khlebnikov in the articles “Our Basis” and “Artists of the World!” (1919).

An important prerequisite for distinguishing phonosemantics as an independent scientific discipline was the creation by Charles Sanders Pierce of a universal classification of signs ^[5] . According to this universal classification, depending on the nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier, three classes of signs are distinguished: index signs, sign icons, and symbol signs. Sound imaging (an object of study of phonosemantics) is a manifestation of iconic relationships in a language.

As an independent scientific discipline, phonosemantics took shape only in the middle of the twentieth century. She got her subject, object and research methodology in the works of Stanislav Vasilievich Voronin . It is in the works of S. V. Voronin ^[6] that phonosemantics is considered for the first time as an independent branch of linguistics, the purpose of which is to study the connection between sound and meaning in a word. Within the framework of the St. Petersburg school of phonosemantics S.V. Voronin substantiated the principle of the dual (involuntary / arbitrary) nature of the linguistic sign , introducing a substantial amendment to the "principle of randomness" by F. de Saussure . He developed a method of phonosemantic analysis, introducing objective criteria for determining a sound word; formulated the basic laws of the formation and evolution of the linguistic sign ; identified the phonotype category as the main phonosemantics category. He introduced the concept and determined the nature of synkinestemia - the basis of sound imaging. ^[7]

The object of phonosemantics is the sound-imaging (ie, onomatopoeic and sound-symbolic) system of language ^[2] .

The subject of phonosemantics is the sound-imaging system of the language in pantopochrony ^[2] .

Under the term "pantopochronia" S.V. Voronin understands the combination of two approaches (spatial and temporal) to the consideration of linguistic phenomena in general, and the phenomena of sound in particular. Phonosemantics, therefore, approaches the consideration of sound-visual vocabulary comprehensively: 1) from the standpoint of linguistic typology and areal linguistics (spatial aspect) and 2) from the standpoint of synchrony and diachrony (time aspect) ^[2] .

The goals and objectives of phonosemantics were first formulated by S.V. Voronin in the monograph Fundamentals of Phonosemantics, first published in 1982, and re-released in 2006 ^[2] . . The monograph was based on the materials of the author’s dissertation of the same name ^[7] .

The purpose of phonosemantics is to study the sound-imaging system of a language at an empirical and theoretical level, as well as sound imaging as a phenomenon ^[2] .

Under the "sound performance" S.V. Voronin understands "the necessary, substantial, repetitive and relatively stable phonetically non-arbitrary (primarially) motivated connection between the phonemes of the word and the attributes of the denotation object that are used as the basis for the name" ^. The author also admits (in his words) a less accurate, but shorter wording (“Sound imaging is a motivated connection between sound and meaning in a word”) ^[2] .

The main tasks of phonosemantics as a scientific discipline are:

• study of the features of the sound system as a whole;

• creation of a universal classification of sound-visual (onomatopoeic and sound-symbolic) vocabulary of world languages;

• creation of phonosemantic typology;

• study of sound functions of phonemes of onomatopoeic words;

• establishing criteria for highlighting a sound word;

• the study of the role of sound in the origin of the language;

• study of ontogenetic and phylogenetic evolution of the language;

• the study of sound in the text;

• the study of sound in translation;

• separation of phonosemantic regularities;

• reflection of signs of sound (acoustic) and non-sonic denotation ;

• the study of onomatopoeic and sound-symbolic vocabulary of world languages ^[2] .

The following basic concepts and categories of phonosemantics as a linguistic discipline were identified within the framework of the St. Petersburg school of phonosemantics :

Soundness

Sound imaging is a necessary, substantial, repetitive and relatively stable phonetically non-arbitrary (primary) motivated connection between the phonemes of a word and the attributes of a denotation object that are used as the basis for the name ” ^{[2] .}

Sound imaging is a property of a word, which consists in the presence of a necessary, essential, repetitive and relatively stable involuntary connection between the phonemes of the word and the attribute of the object, the denotation (motive), used as the basis for the nomination ^[2] .

Sound imaging is a motivated connection between sound and meaning in a word ^[2] .

Sound imaging is the transfer of certain characteristics of the denotate through phonemes of the language having similar structural characteristics ^[8] .

The term “sound imaging” is also synonymous with the term “linguistic iconicity” ^[8] .

Sound word

A sound-visual word is a word with an iconic connection between the phonetic appearance and denotatum ^[8] .

A sound-visual word is a sound-sounding word in its essence, by its origin ^[2] , ie a word with the property of sound at the time of its creation.

Onomatopoeia (Onomatopoeia)

Onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia) is a natural, non-arbitrary phonetically motivated connection between phonemes of a word and the sound (acoustic) sign of denotation (motive) underlying the nomination ^[8] .

Onomatopoeia is a natural involuntary, phonetically motivated connection between phonemes of the word and the sound sign of denotation, which is the basis of the nomination ^[2] .

Onomatopoeia is an imitation of sensations of an auditory modality through acoustic imitation, i.e. reproducing the main acoustic characteristics of perceived sound by means of speech sounds having acoustic characteristics that are closest to the nominated ones ^[8] .

Onomatopoeic word (onomatop)

An onomatopoeic word is a word whose psycho-acoustic parameters of phonemes are most close to the acoustic parameters of the nominated sound, and whose structure iconically displays a sequence of elements of an acoustically complex denotation ^[8] .

S.V. Voronin identifies five universal classes of onomatopians (see Universal Classification of Sound-Visual Vocabulary): instantants, continuants, freentatives, instantants, continents, quanti-continents ^[9] .

Sound Symbolism (Sound Symbolism)

Sound symbolism is a natural, non-arbitrary, phonetically motivated connection between the phoneme of a word and the non-sonic (non-acoustic) sign of denotation (motive) underlying the nomination ^[8] .

Sound symbolism (sound symbol word)

A sound symbolic word is a word that is an articulatory or acoustic-articulatory copy of a non-sound denotation ^[8] .

Sound symbolism is a mimic gesture, a movement accompanied by phonation ^[8] .

To denote such movements S.V. Voronin introduces the concept of " kinema ". This concept generalizes various gestural, primarily mimic, movements expressing 1) sensory, emotive, voluntary, mental processes in the sphere of human consciousness and 2) imitation of external, non-acoustic objects ^[2] . The researcher distinguishes intrakinemas , which are internal, reflex movements that accompany the internal mental, sensory, voluntary, physiological and emotional processes (these include the cough, smile, grimace of disgust, etc.); and extrakinemas , “sympathetic” movements that serve as mimic imitations of external, inacoustic, objects - their shape, size, movement, etc. ^[8] .

Thus, according to the universal classification S.V. Voronin, sound-symbolic words are divided into sound-intrakinesemism and sound-extrakinesemism (see Universal Classification of Sound-Visual Vocabulary).

Phonotype

The phonotype is the most important category of phonosemantics, since the typological comparison of the sound-visual vocabulary is made not by phonemes , but by phonotypes. A phonotype is an acoustic or articulatory type of phoneme that has a sound similar to that displayed by acoustic denotation (for example, sonants can transmit tonal sounds, noisy slotted sounds can transmit noisy sounds, explosive consonants can produce sounds of beats) ^[9] .

A phonotype is a type of speech sound containing a phonetic trait homomorphic with a nominated value ^[2] .

Acoustic phonotype relevant to onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia) is a type of speech sound containing an acoustic signotype homomorphic with a sound mototype ^[10] .

An example of a phonotype is the explosive phonotype. For example, in English, the phonemes / p /, / b /, / t /, / d /, / k /, / g / belong to it. The word tap “knock” contains two phonemes belonging to this phonotype, and when realized in speech, it — thanks to the presence of these phonemes — acquires acoustic characteristics that are closest to the called sound (knock) ^[8] .

Primary motivation of a language mark

Primary motivation is a fundamental, historical motivation of a linguistic sign ^[2] .

Primary motivation is the involuntaryness of a linguistic sign ^[2] .

The principle of arbitrariness / spontaneity of a language mark

The principle of arbitrary / involuntary linguistic sign is the principle according to which the linguistic sign is involuntary, however, in the process of its evolution the word is so quickly complicated by associative transfers, developing towards abstractness, that the sound-visual basis becomes difficult to distinguish after later layers ^[2] .

The denaturation of a language mark

The denaturation of a language sign is the loss of primary motivation by a language sign

S.V. Voronin ^[2] distinguishes three phases of denaturation, that is, the loss of primary motivation, which the iconic sign goes through in its development: 1) natural (iconic); 2) natural-conventional; 3) conventional natural.

Thus, the linguistic sign, according to C. V. Voronin, "is fundamentally involuntary, but in modern synchrony it is a twofold entity - it is both involuntary and arbitrary." S.V. Voronin emphasizes that the process of denaturing a sign does not mean its complete demotivation. “The primary loss of primary motivation, but not motivation in general, occurs, primary motivation is largely replaced, replaced, compensated by second motivation - semantic and morphological” ^[2] .

Deiconization of a Sound Word

Deiconization is the process of the gradual loss of the iconic connection between the phonetic appearance of a sound-visual word and its denotation during linguistic evolution ^[11] .

M.A. Flaxman ^[11] identifies four stages of deiconization (DM):

• SD-1 is a word-interjection, having a number of extrasystemic features, not destroyed by phonosemantically significant regular phonetic changes, an unambiguous, practically “pure” sign-icon, a clear correlation of sound: meaning (for example, brrng! - the sound of strumming).

• SD-2 is a full-valued word that is not destroyed by phonosemantically significant regular phonetic changes, single or multi-valued, preserving the “primary” semantics, partially destroyed sign-icons, less obvious correlation sound: meaning (for example, plup - clap, spank).
• SD-3 is a full-valued word that: a) either has undergone phonosemantically significant regular phonetic changes, but retains the “primary” semantics (for example, hum - buzz); b) or was not destroyed by phonosemantically significant regular phonetic changes, but lost its “primary” semantics (for example, claque / klæk / - clack, a group of spectators clapping for money, originally FR. claquer - clapping; from the sound of popping, onomatopoeia) .
• SD-4 - a full-fledged word that has undergone phonosemantically significant regular phonetic changes and has lost its “primary” semantics, sign-symbol of iconic origin, sound correlation: meaning is restored only by etymological analysis (for example, English lunch - lunch, lunch) ^[11] .

Phonosemantic significance of regular phonetic change

A phonosemantically significant regular phonetic change is a phonetic change that completely destroys the original semantic-sound correlation of an iconic word ^[11] .

To be considered phonosemantically significant, a regular phonetic change should: 1) affect the central, meaning-bearing signs of phonemes ZI-words; 2) thereby bring the phoneme, which has meaning-bearing features, beyond the scope of the phonotype; 3) occur in a word that has not yet lost its primary meaning at the time of its occurrence, that is, a meaning directly related to a sound or articulatory gesture ^[11] .

Phonosemantic inertia

Phonosemantic inertia is the preservation of the earlier phonetic appearance of a phonetic word contrary to the action of regular phonetic changes ^[11] .

Phonosemantically Inert Word

A phonosemantically inert word is a sound-visual word, which is not a borrowing from other dialects of the language, which, unlike the bulk of the words of its etymological class, resists the phonetic changes that occur in the language, if these changes significantly violate the semantic-sound correlation existing in it ^{[ 11]} .

Sound Modification

Sound-visual modification is a word-formation method in which there is a partial change in the root of a sound-visual word, not caused by phonetic laws in force in the language ^[12] .

Sound-visual word formation by changing an existing word is a restructuring of the original sound material to adapt to the needs of the speaker. And the words resulting from the ZI modification are nothing more than incomplete neoplasms that differ from the full ones in that the native speaker does not look for completely new phonetic material to create them, but partially uses the old basis for the sake of saving effort ^[12] .

Основным достижением фоносемантики является создание универсальной классификации звукоизобразительной лексики.

Универсальная классификация звукоизобразительной лексики была изначально разработана С.В. Ворониным на материале английского языка ^[9] , и позднее применена к материалу родственных и неродственных языков. Согласно этой классификации, звукоизобразительная система любого языка включает в себя звукоподражательную и звукосимволическую подсистемы ^[2] .

Звукоподражательная подсистема

Звукоподражательная подсистема, в свою очередь, делится на пять универсальных классов. Выделение этих классов основывается на сопоставлении акустических характеристик фонотипов звукоподражательных слов с акустическими характеристиками называемых звучаний.

На основе сочетаемости различных параметров С.В. Воронин выделил девять типов звучаний : I. Удар; II. Тоновый неудар; III. Чисто шумовой неудар; IV. Тоношумовой неудар; V. Квазиудар; VI. Чистый диссонанс; VII. Тоновый квазинеудар; Viii. Чисто шумовой квазинеудар; IX. Тоношумовой квазинеудар ^[2] .

Типы звучаний, в свою очередь, могут также сочетаться друг с другом в различных комбинациях В целом, типы звучаний образуют три класса: А. Удары; Б. Неудары; В.Диссонансы. Типы сочетания звучаний объединяются в два гиперкласса: АБ. Удары-неудары (совмещает черты классов А и Б) ВАБ. Диссонансы квазиудары (совмещает черты все трех классов при доминировании класса В) ^[2] .

Для обозначения классов и гиперклассов ономатопов приняты следующие названия:

• А. Инстанты;

• Б. Континуанты;

• В. Фреквентативы;

• АБ. Инстанты-континуанты;

• ВАБ. Фреквентативы квазиинстанты - континуанты ^[2] .

Внутри каждого класса и гиперкласса выделяются более дробные типы ономатопов, а также выделяются словообразовательные модели.

Инстанты

Инстанты – это гиперкласс звукоподражательных слов, обозначающих удар, т.е. «сверхкраткий», «мгновенный» шум, воспринимаемый человеком как акустический удар ^[2] .

Инстанты обозначают такие естественные звуки, как стук, щелканье и т.п. В английском языке фонемами, обладающими акустическими характеристиками, сходными с этими звучаниями, являются смычные /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/. Так, инстант tap /tæp/ «удар, касание» является акустической копией резкого отрывистого звука, который слышится при ударе одного предмета о другой ^[8] .

Континуанты

Континуанты – это гиперкласс звукоподражаний, обозначающих длительные звучания ^[2] .

Длительное звучание может быть тоновым, шумовым и тоно-шумовым. S.V. Воронин выделяет соответственно тоновые континуанты, чисто шумовые континуанты и тоношумовые континуанты ^[2] .

For tonal continua, the fundamental element is a long (tense) vowel. The acoustic characteristics of the vowel play a decisive role in distinguishing the characteristics of the transmitted sound: low sounds will be transmitted by the vowels of the back row, high ones of the front row. For example, the central element of the English beep / bi: p / “squeak (about devices)” is a high-frequency vowel / i: / nominating a high-frequency squeak ^[8] .

Noisy continuants denote a long noise sound (shock): whistling, hissing, rustling, buzzing, etc. The most important element of their structure is slotted sounds, which are similar in acoustic characteristics to nominated sounds. In English it is / v /, / f /, / s /, / z /, / ʃ /, / ʒ / as well as / h / less often / w / (eg hiss / hɪs / “hiss, whistle”) ^[8] .

Freventives

Freventatives are designations of dissonant sounds, i.e. series of beats in which each beat is almost not felt separately, but there is no complete merging of the sequence of strokes into a single sound ^[2] .

Freventatives indicate trembling, all kinds of fractional, sharp sounds. The main element of onomatopoeia-freventivation is the consonant / r / at the absolute end of the word (eg 16c. Arr / a: r / “growl”). However, it is worth noting that in modern English (in its British version) pure freventives are completely absent (the exception is pronouns) - as a result of regular phonetic changes (vocalization / r /), phonotactics of modern English does not allow post-vocals / r /. Thus, in British English, freventatives are a historical hyperclass. For example, purr “purr” is a (historically) freventive ^[8] .

Continent Constants

Continuum constants are a hyperclass of onomatopoeia of a mixed type, designating a blow with subsequent or previous shock (tone or noise) ^[2] .

Depending on the combination and sequence of phoneme types that reflect the nominated acoustically complex sound, the following subtypes of instant continuants with slightly different structural models are distinguished: Tone post-impact instant continuants - onomatopoeia, indicating a beat with a subsequent tone. The blow is conveyed by them in a meaningful way, in tone - by a sonorous one (in English it is / m /, / n /, / ŋ /). For example, this is the English plump / plʌmp / “flop” ^[8] .

Purely noisy post-impact continua instances are onomatopoeias that denote a blow with subsequent noise. The blow from them is transmitted by the closure, the noise by the slot. For example, clash / klæʃ /, “hit with noise, collide” ^[8] .

Pure noise pre -shock and tone- noise pre -shock instanti-continuants are onomatopoeia that denote noise with a subsequent blow. For example, flap / flæp / "cotton" ^[8] .

Purely noisy tone “pre-shock-aftershock” and “tono-noise pre-shock-aftershock” instant-continuants are onomatopoeia that denote various combinations of tone (expressed by sonor) and noise (expressed by slit different types). For example, slump / slʌmp / “sharp drop” ^[8] .

Freventatives - (quasi) instanti-continuants (Freventatives of mixed types)

Mixed type freventives is a hyperclass of onomatopoeia that serves in a language to denote mixed sounds, one of the components of which is dissonance sound ^[8] .

Mixed types of freventatives are divided into instance-instantives, continent-freventatives (tone, noise, noise-noise) and continent-instant freentatives ^[8] . In the original work, the names are frequentatives-quasi-constants, freventatives-quasicontinuants, freventives are quasi-constant-continuants ^[2] .

Freventatives-instants are a mixed class of onomatopoeia that generally designates a dissonant beat in combination with another subsequent or previous stroke (eg, crick / krɪk / “crunch, spasm”) ^[8] .

Continuity freventives can be of three types. S.V. Voronin distinguishes noise, tone, and noise-noise subtypes of Voronin 2006. The central element for freakative-tone-continuum subunits is, in addition to R, also a long vowel. For example, scroop / skru: p / “rattle”. For freaktivatives of noise continua except R such element will be slotted either at the beginning or at the end of the word. For example, rustle / rʌsl / “rustling” ^[8] .

Freventatives-instant-continuants are the acoustically most complex class of onomatopoeias, indicating a dissonant beat with a subsequent or previous shock. In addition to R, the central element for the FIC is the sonorous transmitting shock, i.e. tone. FICs can also be acoustically complicated by different consonants. An example of a word of this type is thrum / θrʌm / “play a musical instrument, play strings” ^[8] .

Sound symbol subsystem

From the point of view of the object of study, sound symbolism is divided into two types of subjective and objective. Subjective sound symbolism denotes the relationship between sound and meaning in the human psyche, and objective sound symbolism denotes the realization of a potentially existing relationship between sound and the meaning of a word in a particular language or the relationship between sound and meaning in a system ^[10] . In the framework of the St. Petersburg school of phonosemantics [ studied, first of all, objective sound symbolism.

Sound symbolism is a natural, non-arbitrary, phonetically motivated connection between the phonemes of a word and the non-sonic (non-acoustic) sign of denotation (motive) underlying the nomination ^[13] .

The basis for the nomination of sound-symbolic words can be signs of objects perceived by the human sense organs (except for hearing: in this case we are talking about onomatopoeia). The largest number of possible signs is accounted for by vision, namely: movement - instant / long, fast / slow, sharp / soft, uneven / even, continuous / intermittent, erratic, sliding, various types of gait; statics - remoteness - close / far, size - large / small, shape - rounded, curved, pointed, elongated. Smell defines the distinction between odors that qualify as pleasant / unpleasant. Taste gives the taste characteristics of the object: sweet, salty, sour, bitter. Touch makes it possible to distinguish between: signs of a skin-tactile (tactile) group: touch, pressure; surface properties: smooth, rough, object texture: hardness / stiffness, elasticity; signs of a temperature group: hot / cold; signs of the pain group: pain: cutting, stitching, aching, dull, acute. Organic sensations: signs of hunger, suffocation, thirst. Since the marked features cover so different types, that is, everything except the sound ones, S. V. Voronin defines the sphere of motivation of sound-symbolic words antonymically combining them as “non-sound” ^[2] .

In the sound-symbolic subsystem, two main classes of vocabulary are distinguished - intrakinesemism and extrakinesemism.

Sound Symbols-Intrakinesemism

Sound Symbols-Intrakinesemisms - acoustic-articulatory copies of non-acoustic or partly acoustic denotat accompanied by sound ^[8] .

Sound symbolisms-intrakinesemisms are: 1) designations of licking, lacquering, etc., that is, various imitations of the movement of the tongue, accompanied by sound; they are transmitted by the lateral sonor / l / - eg, English. lick "lick, lick"; 2) designations of champing, chewing, etc., i.e., various imitations of the movement of the jaw, accompanied by sound; in English they are often transmitted by affricates - for example, champ champing; 3) designations of absorption, retraction, inspiration, etc., i.e., various imitations of grasping movements accompanied by sound; an articulatory gesture is often accompanied by a whistle of air passing through the oral cavity, therefore the central element of the ST ICS of this category is most often a muffled whistling or hissing / s / or / ʃ / - for example, English. sip “suck, drink, drink,” etc. A total of 36 types of intracinemia and, correspondingly, 36 types of intrakinesemism are distinguished ^[2] .

Sound Symbols-Extrakinesemism

Sound symbols-extrakinesemism - accompanied by sound articulatory copies of non-acoustic denotation, for which phonation is secondary ^[8] .

Extrakinesemism is one of the most numerous types of sound symbol classes by the type of displayed features. They convey movement (toddle “waddle”, wallow “roll on the ground”, birl “rotate (like a bullet when flying)”), the shape of the object, the nature of the surface). The most well-studied representatives of extrakinesemism are round designations. For the transmission of a rounded form of denotate, labial ones are used. Labial characters are found in words representing a round, spherical object in all languages ​​of the world, regardless of whether they belong to a particular language family - for example, A.M. Gas-Ginsberg discovered 66 roots in the Semitic languages ​​with this meaning of lip phonemes ^[14] ; and according to the results of the structural-phonetic analysis of the lexical-semantic group of English rounded designations, they revealed an excess of the probabilistic expectation of the labial by almost 2.5 times in comparison with the background ^[15] .

A multilateral systematic approach to the study of sound visualization became possible within the framework of the method of phonosemantic analysis proposed by S. V. Voronin, which made it possible to conduct an etymologization of sound-visual vocabulary at a completely different level ^[10] . Testing of this method on the material of a number of unrelated languages ​​has shown its wide capabilities ^[16] .

The phonosemantic analysis method is aimed at establishing the presence or absence of sound in a word and revealing its nature and consists in analyzing the word through six sequential and interconnected operations:

I. "Semantics" - the definition of the sound or non-sound meaning of a word. If a word denotes a sound, then it is usually an onomatophe.

II. “Criteria” A. Semantic criteria: 1) expressiveness and emotionality; 2) imagery of semantics; 3) the specificity of semantics; 4) designation of the simplest elements of the psychophysiological universe of man; B. Grammatical criteria: 5) morphological hyperanomality; B. Word-formation criteria: 6) reduction; G. Structural-phonetic (formal) criteria: 7) phonetic hyperanomality; 8) relative uniformity of form; 9) phonetic hypervariability; D. Functional criteria: 10) stylistic limitation.

III. “Etymology” - establishing the etymology of a word to the maximum possible depth, attracting its correlates from related languages.

IV. “Extra-linguistics” - establishing the motivation for nomination by comparing the acoustic and articulatory characteristics of the sound side of the word with the sensory characteristics of denotation.

V. "Typology" - the identification of words with similar phonotypes and semantics in unrelated languages.

VI. Summa summarum - analysis of data obtained as a result of the previous five stages and conclusions about the presence or absence of primary motivation in a word ^[2] .

The Soviet philologist A. P. Zhuravlev suggested that a certain subconscious meaning corresponds to each sound of human speech ^[17] . Using the technique of " semantic differentials " by C. Osgood , Zhuravlev conducted a study to clarify these values. The results formed the basis of his dissertation. Zhuravlev proposed a list of qualitative characteristics of each sound of Russian speech, namely what it is on the following 23 scales:

  good bad,
      beautiful - repulsive,
      joyful - sad
      light dark,
      light heavy,
      safe is scary
      kind angry,
      simple - complex
      smooth - rough
      rounded - angular,
      big small,
      rough - tender
      courageous - feminine,
      strong - weak
      cold - hot
      majestic - vile
      loud - quiet
      mighty - frail
      funny - sad
      bright - dull
      mobile - slow
      fast - slow
      active - passive.

All sounds of the Russian language are graded on these scales. According to Zhuravlev’s idea, high-quality phonosemantic scales make it possible to evaluate the effect of sounds on a person’s mental state. Each word consists of sounds; It is proposed, to assess the impact on a person of a word as a set of sounds, using the appropriate calculations to determine the general phonosemantic meaning of the sounds that make up a given word on all 23 scales. With the advent of cheap computers, phonosemantic analysis of the word began to occupy small fractions of a second.

Books

• Phonosemantics (Collection of articles under the editorship of MA Flaksman, OI Brodovich) ^[18]
• Voronin S.V. English onomatologists: phonosemantic classification ^[9]

• Voronin S. V. Fundamentals of phonosemantics ^[2]

• Voronin S. V. Phonosemantic ideas in foreign linguistics ^[19]

• Voronin S.V. 2005. Iconicity. Glottogenesis. Semiosis ^[20]
• Gazov-Ginsberg, A. M. Was the language pictorial in its origins? ^[14]

• Zhuravlev A. P. Phonetic meaning ^[17]

• Kazakova E.V. Sound system of the Arabic language ^[21]
• Koleva-Zlateva Zh. S. Slavic vocabulary of sound-symbolic origin: problems of etymologization ^[22]

• Kile N. B. Figurative words of the Nanai language ^[23]

• Levitsky VV Semantics and phonetics ^[24]

• Levitsky V.V. Sound Symbolism: Myths and Reality ^[25]

• Mikhalev AB ., 1995 Theory of the phonosemantic field ^[26]
• Puzyrev A.V. Anagrams as a Phenomenon of Language: An Experience in Systemic Comprehension ^[27]

• Flaxman M.A. Sound-visual vocabulary of the English language in synchrony and diachrony ^[11]

• Shestakova O.V. The world through the prism of Onomatopoeia ^[28]

• Shlyakhova S. S. “Another” language: the experience of marginal linguistics ^[29]

• Shlyakhova S. S. Shadow of meaning in sound: Introduction to Russian phonosemantics ^[30]

• Shlyakhova S. S., M. G. Vershinina. Phonosemantic sound picture of the world ^[31]

• Shlyakhova S.S., Lobanova A. C. Sound imaging in the Komi-Permyak language ^[32]

Dictionaries

• Flaksman M. A. Dictionary of English sound-visual vocabulary in diachronic lighting ^[8]

• Shlyakhova S.S. Tongues of the tongue: Dictionary of Russian phonosemantic anomalies ^[33]

• Shlyakhova S.S., Shestakova O.V.   German Onomatopoeia: history of study, problems, German-Russian dictionary ^[34]

International Internet Science Project Linguistic IConism

The international scientific Internet project Linguistic Iconism ^[35] is by far the largest Russian-language Internet resource on phonosemantics. The main goal of the project is to unite efforts to study sound in different languages ​​of the world and to disseminate scientific and reliable knowledge of linguistic iconism, phonosemantics and related fields of scientific knowledge. The project text fund contains about 700 documents in 54 languages ​​of the world that are in the public domain. ^[35]

Iconicity Atlas Project Multilingual Sound Language Dictionary

The multilingual dictionary of sound- producing vocabulary Iconicity Atlas Project ^[36] is a gradually expanding interactive dictionary of onomatopoeic, sound-symbolic, mimic vocabulary and ideophones of world languages. The dictionary contains audio recordings of pronunciation of sound words made by native speakers of the languages ​​presented, transcriptions of words in the IPA , as well as detailed dictionary definitions in English. The dictionary is created on the basis of a 100-word questionnaire made on the basis of the Swadesh list . The purpose of creating the Iconicity Atlas dictionary is a detailed and comprehensive description of the sound- imaging systems of various languages ​​of the world, designed for typological comparison ^[36] .

VAAL Computer Program

According to the authors (V.P. Belyanin, M. Dymshits, V.I. Shalak) of the VAAL program , it is based on the idea and results of Zhuravlev's research. It should be noted that the VAAL program does not analyze sounds, but letters in the composition of words and does not take into account their mutual arrangement.

St. Petersburg School of Phonosemantics

Санкт-Петербургская школа фоносемантики – это старейшая фоносемантическая школа России ^[35] . В рамках Санкт-Петербургской школы фоносемантика была впервые создана в качестве самостоятельной научной дисциплины (основатель – С.В. Воронин). Исследователи школы занимаются поиском фоносемантических универсалий и регулярностей, типологическим сопоставлением звукоизобразительной лексики языков мира, разработкой универсальной классификации ономатопов и звукосимволической лексики, описанием звукоизобразительных систем языков мира, изучением звукоизобразительной этимологии, а также семантической и фонетической эволюции звукоизобразительной лексики. В рамках Санкт-Петербургской школы фоносемантики был разработан метод фоносемантического анализа , базирующийся на данных этимологии и лингвистической типологии. Основной отличительной чертой школы является упор на использование методов сравнительно-исторического языкознания.

В рамках Санкт-Петербургской школы фоносемантики создаётся многоязычный онлайн-словарь звукоизоразительной лексики Iconicity Atlas (Флаксман М.А., Ноланд Н.Н.) ^[36] .

Руководителями школы были Станислав Васильевич Воронин (до 2001 года) и Ольга Игоревна Бродович (до 2018 года).

Представители школы: Афанасьев А. Ю., Барташова О. А., Бартко Н. В., Беседина Е. И., Братусь И. Б., Вельди Э. А., Жутовская Н. М., Канкия Н. Д., Климова С. В., Койбаева Т. Х., Краснова А. В., Кузьмич И. В., Лапкина Л. З., Ливанова А. Н., Ноланд Н. Н., Петухова Е. В., Пономарева С. Н., Татаринова Е. С., Флаксман М. А., Шамина Е. А.

Пятигорская фоносемантическая школа

Пятигорская фоносемантическая школа занимается теорией фоносемантического поля; фоносемантической этимологией; обоснованием протоконцептуального иконического пространства языка; иконической концепцией происхождения языка; исследованием звукоизобразительности морфемотипов, фонестем, инициалей, финалей.

Руководитель – А. Б. Михалёв. Представители: Атаджанян С.А. ^[35]

Пермский фоносемантический кружок

Пермский фоносемантический кружок – это активно развивающаяся фоносемантическая школа России. Школа занимается диалектной фоносемантикой и маргинальной лингвистикой, изучением звукоизобразительности коми-пермяцкого языка и универсальной типологией ономатопов (русский, немецкий), а также фоносемантической лексикографией. Представители школы занимаются созданием и расширением международного научного интернет-проекта Лингвистический Иконизм ^[35] .

Руководитель школы – Шляхова С. С. Представители: Вершинина М. Г., Шестакова О. В. ^[35]

Черновицкая фоносемантическая школа (Украина)

Черновицкая фоносемантическая школа занимается изучением объективного и субъективного звукового символизма, проблемой этимологии звукоизобразительной лексики, особенностями формально-семантического варьирования корней звукоподражательного происхождения в индоевропейском праязыке.

Основатель – В. В. Левицкий. Представители: Комарницкая Л. А., Козлова Т. О. ^[35]

Саратовская психолингвистическая школа

В рамках саратовской психолингвистической школы ведётся психолингвистическое экспериментальное исследование звукосимволизма проводится обоснование тезиса о примарной мотивированности языкового знака.

Руководитель школы – И. Н. Горелов. Представители: Л. П. Прокофьева. ^[35]

Бийская лаборатория антропоцентрической типологии языков

Бийская лаборатория антропоцентрической типологии языков занимается изучением иконизма в условиях психолингвистического эксперимента и исследованием процессов окказиональной вербализации и восприятия сигналов разной природы носителями русского, английского, китайского, корейского, японского, алтайского языков.

Руководитель: Е. Б. Трофимова. ^[35]

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• Синестезия
• Графемно-цветовая синестезия
• Цветной слух
• Эффект «буба — кики»
• Санкт-Петербургская школа фоносемантики