Cromwell, Thomas

Origin

Thomas Cromwell's grandfather was a blacksmith , his father - Walter Cromwell - an innkeeper and owner of a brewery ^[6] . There is evidence that he not only possessed violent disposition, but also was accused of fraud. Thomas's mother, Catherine, lived in Putney at the home of a local lawyer, John Welbeck, at the time of marriage to Walter Cromwell in 1474 ^[6] . Cromwell had two sisters, Thomas Cromwell's elder sister, Katherine, married Morgan Williams, a lawyer in Wales. The son of Katherine and Morgan, Richard, worked in the service of his uncle and changed his surname to Cromwell. Richard was great-grandfather of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell .

Youth

Little is known about the early life of Thomas Cromwell. It is believed that he was born at the top of Putney Hill (now it is part of London ). It was a well-known refuge of robbers, and only a few daredevils ventured to pass through it at night.

Cromwell once declared to the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer that he was “a thug ... in his youth” (that he had been a “ruffian ... in his young days”). ^[6] In his youth, he left his family at Putney and traveled to the continent. The stories about his activities in France, Italy and the Lower Lands are fragmentary and controversial. It is alleged that he first became a mercenary and marched with the French army in Italy, where he fought at the Battle of Garigliano on December 29, 1503. Soon he deserted from the French army. Settled in Florence . Here he became an employee in the banking house of Friskabaldi , quickly moved forward, oversaw the financial relations of the bank with the Holy See . For this reason he traveled several times to Rome . He was interested in the political life of Florence. I got acquainted with the works of Niccolo Machiavelli . Subsequently, he will often follow the recommendations of the author of " Sovereign ".

Career

He later visited leading shopping centers in the Netherlands , living among English merchants and creating a network of important contacts while learning several languages. After a couple of years, he occupies a similar position in the city of Calais , then owned by England. At some point, he returned to Italy. The records indicate that he remained in Rome in June 1514, ^[6] although documents in the Vatican archives suggest that he was an agent of the Archbishop of York , Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge, and worked on English church matters before the Holy Roman Company Tribunal . ^[7] For some time during these years, Cromwell returned to England and settled in London , where he married Elizabeth Wyckis (1489-1527) around 1515. She was the widow of royal guard Thomas Williams. ^[6] Despite the fact that his family grew, he twice (in 1517 and 1518) led embassies in Rome to receive from Pope Leo X a bull about indulgences for the city of Boston in Lincolnshire . ^[eight]

By 1520, Cromwell firmly established himself in the commercial and legal circles of London, trading in wool and fabrics, and then became a lawyer . Soon he was one of the most famous lawyers in England. ^[6] In 1523, he was a member of the House of Commons, who was not afraid to criticize the king’s increased financial appetites. ^[6]

In 1524, Cromwell joined the service of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey , Lord Chancellor of King Henry VIII , and became his secretary and manager of the Cardinal estates. In the mid-1520s, Cromwell helped liquidate nearly thirty small monasteries in order to raise funds for Walsy on the basis of Christ Church in Oxford (1529). ^[6] In 1526, Walsy appointed Cromwell a member of his council; By 1529, Cromwell was one of Walsey's oldest and most trusted advisers. However, by the end of October of that year, Walsey fell into disgrace. ^[6] There is evidence that Walsy Cromwell experienced disgrace and death hard.

Cromwell's efforts to overcome the shadow of his career due to the fall of Walsy were successful. By November 1529, he secured a seat in parliament as a deputy from Taunton . In 1530, the king appointed him to the Privy Council . ^[6]

Chancellor and Secretary of State

Since 1527, Henry VIII sought to annul his marriage with Queen Catherine in order to be able to marry Anna Boleyn . At the center of the divorce campaign was the developing doctrine of the supremacy of the king in the church (suprematism).

By the fall of 1531, Cromwell took control of the king’s legal and parliamentary affairs, working closely with Thomas Audley, and joined the inner circle of the Council. By next spring, he began to influence the elections to the House of Commons. ^[6] He was a humble man who did not love flattery. ^[9]

The third session of what is now known as the Reformation Parliament was scheduled for October 1531, but was postponed until January 15, 1532 due to the government’s indecision as to how to proceed best. Cromwell then called for the assertion of the supremacy of the king, and he manipulated the House of Commons with the revival of anti-church discontent expressed at the beginning of the 1529 session. On March 18, 1532, the House of Commons expressed a plea to the king, condemning the abuses of the clergy and the authority of church courts and describing Henry as the "sole head, sovereign, patron and protector" of the church. The clergy at first resisted, but capitulated to the threat of parliamentary repression. May 14, 1532 was a break in the parliament. Two days later, Sir Thomas More resigned as Lord Chancellor , realizing that the battle to save the marriage was lost. Mohr's resignation from the Council was a victory for Cromwell and the pro-reform faction at court. ^[6]

The gratitude of King Cromwell was expressed in the provision of Romney’s estate in Newport in Wales and in the appointment to three relatively small posts: the custodian of royal values on April 14, 1532, the secretary of the office of the chancellor (which paid registration and paperwork fees) on July 16, and the chancellor of the treasury 12 April 1533 None of these departments brought a lot of income, but gifts were a sign of royal favor and gave Cromwell posts in three main government institutions: the royal court, clerical court and the treasury. ^[6]

By January 1533, Anna Boleyn was pregnant, and the marriage could no longer be postponed. The wedding took place at a secret ceremony on January 25, 1533. ^[10] Parliament was convened immediately to enact the necessary legislation. On January 26, 1533, Audley was appointed Lord Chancellor, and Cromwell increased his control over the House of Commons through election management. The parliamentary session began on February 4, and Cromwell introduced a new bill restricting the right to appeal to Rome. On March 30, Kranmer was ordained an archbishop of Canterbury, and the clergy council of the dioceses of Canterbury and York immediately declared the marriage of the king and Catherine illegal. In the first week of April 1533, Parliament passed the Appeal Restriction Act , making sure that the sentence of royal marriage could not be challenged in Rome. On April 11, Archbishop Kranmer sent the king for the sake of contesting the validity of his marriage with Queen Catherine. A formal trial began on May 10, 1533, and on May 23, the archbishop pronounced the verdict, declaring the marriage illegal. Five days later, he declared the king's marriage to Anna lawful, and on June 1 she was crowned. ^[6]

In December, the king allowed Cromwell to discredit the papacy, and the Pope was attacked throughout the country in sermons and pamphlets. In 1534, a new parliament was convened, again controlled by Cromwell, to enact the legislation necessary to formally sever England's remaining ties with Rome. The sentence of Archbishop Kranmer entered into force in the prescribed form, as the Act of Succession, the Act of Liberation, which confirmed the superiority of the king, and the Act on the subordination of the clergy. On March 30, 1534, Audley gave royal sanction to the approval of legislation in the presence of the king. ^[6]

In April 1534, Henry appointed Cromwell as Secretary of State and Chief Minister, a position that he had already held in everything except the name for some time. Cromwell immediately took steps to enforce legislation that had just passed through parliament. Before the members of both chambers returned home on March 30, they had to swear an oath of recognition of the Act of Succession, and all royal subjects were now obligated to swear to recognize the legality of marriage and, as a result, to accept the new king’s authority and break with Rome. April 13, the London clergy took the oath. On the same day, members of the commission ordered to swear to Sir Thomas More and John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester, who refused. Pestilence was taken into custody on the same day and placed in the Tower on April 17. Fisher joined him four days later. On April 18, an order was issued by which all citizens of London were to swear. Similar orders were found throughout the country. After the new convocation of parliament in November, Cromwell introduced the law on the most significant revision of treason since 1352, which made treason against the royal family to deprive them of their titles, or to call the king a heretic, tyrant, atheist or usurper. The Suprematist Act also clarified the king’s position as head of the church, and the Act on the Payment of the First Fruits and Tithing significantly increased church taxes. Cromwell also strengthened his control of the church. On January 21, 1535, the king appointed him royal governor or general vicar for church affairs and commissioned him to organize audits of temples, monasteries and clergy throughout the country. In this capacity, Cromwell conducted a census in 1535 to enable the government to tax church property more efficiently. In fact, Cromwell was the ideologist of the English Reformation and one of the founders of the Church of England . On matters of dogma, he used the advice of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. The severity with which Cromwell secularized church property gave him the nickname "Hammer of the Monks." ^[6]

The final session of the Reformation Parliament began on February 4, 1536. By March 18, the Act on the Closure of Small Monasteries, whose gross income was less than £ 200 a year, passed through both chambers. This caused a clash with Anna Boleyn, who wanted the proceeds from the dissolution to be used for charity purposes, and not in the treasury. Anna instructed her chaplains to preach against the royal governor, and on April 2, 1536 her alms distributor, John Skip , accused Cromwell in front of the whole court the enemy of the queen. Anna still has not been able to produce a male heir. Cromwell was aware of the king’s growing impatience and his love for young Jane Seymour , so he spoke with relentless determination , accusing Anna of adultery with several courtiers, including her own brother, Viscount Rochford . The queen and her brother appeared in court on Monday, May 15, while four other accused were convicted on Friday. The men were executed on May 17, and on the same day, Kranmer proclaimed Heinrich’s marriage with Anna invalid, declaring their daughter, Princess Elizabeth illegitimate. Two days later, Anna was executed. On May 30, the king married Jane Seymour. On June 8, the second succession act was passed in the new parliament, securing the rights of the heirs to the throne from Queen Jane. ^[6]

Cromwell's positions were now stronger than ever. He succeeded Anna Boleyn’s father, Thomas Bolein , as the guardian lord of the Small Seal on July 2, 1536, leaving the post of custodian of court archives, which he held since October 8, 1534. On July 8, 1536 he was promoted to peer, like Baron Cromwell of Wimbledon .

In July 1536, the first attempt was made to clarify religious doctrine after breaking with Rome. Bishop Edward Fox, with strong support from Cromwell and Cranmer, submitted proposals to the Assembly, which the king later approved as ten articles published in August. Cromwell sent out instructions for their execution that went beyond the scope of the articles, provoking resistance in September and October in Lincolnshire and then throughout the six northern counties. This rebellion of the Catholics, which found support among the small nobility and even the nobility, is known as the Holy Pilgrimage . The most significant reason for the rebellion's indignation was the closure of monasteries, which accused the "evil advisers" of the king, mainly Cromwell and Cranmer. However, the riot was suppressed. One of the leaders of the uprising, Thomas Darcy , gave Cromwell a prophetic warning before the execution - "the others who were in the mercy of the king, which you now enjoy, have come to the same fate that you brought me." ^[6]

In 1539, in order to establish relations with the Protestants of Germany, Cromwell persuaded the king to marry Anna Klewski - the sister of the Duke von Julich-Cleve-Berg . At this time, England was threatened by intervention from France and Spain, and such an alliance was a smart move. But the bride did not like Henry VIII, and the threat of war with France and Spain passed. These two circumstances allowed the leaders of the Catholic party at court - Thomas Howard, the Duke of Norfolk and Bishop Stephen Gardiner to convince the suspicious king of the unreliability of Cromwell. However, in April 1540, Henry VIII granted his minister the title of Count of Essex , which he sought for several years.

Arrest and Execution

On Saturday, June 10, 1540, at three in the afternoon, Cromwell was arrested during a meeting of the Privy Council on charges of treason and heresy. The members of the Council attacked the unarmed minister with fists, the Duke of Norfolk and Bishop Gardiner tore the orders conferred on him for serving England. In desperation, he tore off his hat and shouted: “Am I a traitor? Tell me honestly, am I a traitor? I have always faithfully served His Majesty! But if they treat me like that, I give up hope of mercy. I only ask the king to not languish in prison for long. ” ^[eleven]

At the Tower, Cromwell spent about a month and a half. In torn clothes, with traces of beatings on his face, he was taken there on a barge through the Gate of the Traitors . Endless interrogations began. Moreover, the answers of the arrested did not interest anyone. Investigators did the will of the king - until recently, the omnipotent minister should be executed. To force Cromwell to incriminate himself, they even resorted to torture. Cromwell pleaded not guilty.

At this time, Archbishop Kranmer tried unsuccessfully to obtain mercy from the king. Henry VIII only agreed to replace the fire with beheading. On July 28, 1540, Thomas Cromwell climbed the scaffold on Tower Hill . He confessed and prayed, calling himself "an eternal wanderer in this world," but, turning to the people, did not declare his innocence. Thus he tried to maintain a position at the court of his only son - Gregory Cromwell. Cromwell's death was not easy. According to chronicler Edward Hall, "he bravely withstood the blow of a despicable executioner who did not do his job divinely." The number of ax blows is not mentioned. ^[12]

Personal life

Thomas Cromwell was married to Elizabeth Wyckis, from whom he had three children: Gregory, Anna and Grace. After the death of his wife from the " English sweat " in 1528, Cromwell never married again. He was very attached to his son and favored his nephew Richard, the son of his older sister and great-grandfather Oliver Cromwell , whom he officially adopted. There were rumors at court that Thomas Cromwell wanted to marry Princess Mary , the eldest daughter of Henry VIII. He really supported her, although Mary was a zealous Catholic. However, she refused Cromwell's friendship on religious grounds.

Cromwell, who was educated in Italy and during his wanderings in Europe, significantly broadened his horizons, was called the "defender of women." He protected the Duchess of Norfolk from her husband's despotism, as a result, the Duke of Norfolk had not only political, but also personal reasons for not loving the minister.

Cromwell willingly patronized the people of art. The famous painter Hans Holbein the Younger lived in his house for a long time, and the poet and diplomat Thomas Wyatt was his friend.

Thomas Cromwell was a controversial person. Some call him “the ideal statesman of Tudor England”, others - “the most corrupt chancellor”. Clever, cunning, bold, practical, easily weaving and unraveling the most complex intrigues, he could also be disinterested and generous. Cromwell was one of the most prominent figures of the English Renaissance , who was ahead of his time.

Literature

Thomas Cromwell is the protagonist of the novels of the British writer Hilary Mantel and , who won the Booker Prize in 2009 and 2012, respectively. His political activities, arrest and execution are described in the historical detectives C.J. Sansom 's The Hunchback of Lord Cromwell and The Dark Fire.

Кинематограф

• Франклин Дайалл в фильме « Частная жизнь Генриха VIII » (1933)
• Лео Маккерн в фильме « Человек на все времена » (1966)
• Джон Коликос в фильме « Тысяча дней Анны » (1969)
• Дональд Плезенс «Генрих VIII и его шесть жён» (1972)
• Дэнни Уэбб в мини-сериале « Генрих VIII » (2003)
• Рон Кук в фильме « Ещё одна из рода Болейн » (2003)
• Иэн Митчелл в фильме « Ещё одна из рода Болейн » (2008)
• Джеймс Фрейн в телесериале « Тюдоры » (2007—2010)
• Марк Райлэнс в мини-сериале « Волчий зал » (2015) ^[13]
• Ферран Ауди в телесериале « Карлос, король и император » (2015—2016)
• Тоби Осмонд в мини-сериале «Шесть королев Генриха VIII» (2016) ^[14]

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• Roger Bigelow Merriman . Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell ISBN 978-1-149-10434-7
• Coby, J. Patrick. Thomas Cromwell: Machiavellian Statecraft and the English Reformation . — Lanham : Lexington Books, 2009. — ISBN 0739134035 .
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• Kinney, Kinney, Arthur; Swain, David W. Tudor England: An Encyclopedia . — Garland, 2001. — ISBN 0815307934 .
• Leithead, Howard. Cromwell, Thomas, Earl of Essex (b. in or before 1485, d. 1540) . — 2008. — DOI : 10.1093/ref:odnb/6769 .
• Paul van Dyk Renascence Portraits. NY, 1905.
• Schofield J. The Rise and Fall of Thomas Cromwell , 2011. ISBN 0-7524-4604-5 ; ISBN 978-0-7524-4604-2
• Elton, Geoffrey Rudolph. An Early Tudor Poor Law // Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and Government . — London : Cambridge University Press, 1974. — Vol. II. - P. 137-154. - ISBN 9780511561108 . - DOI : 10.1017 / CBO9780511561108.006 .

• CROMWELL, Thomas (by 1485-1540), of London at historyofparliamentonline.org
• Cromwell, Thomas, Earl of Essex Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. VII at archive.org
• Thomas Cromwell with details on his policies at englishhistory.net