Hassdai ben Yehuda Crescas ( lat. Crescas , Cat. Cresques , Hebrew חסדאי קרשקש ; 1340 , Barcelona - 1410 ( 1411 ?), Zaragoza ) - philosopher, theologian, statesman and head of Spanish Jewry in the XIV century [1 ] . Rabbi of Zaragoza , he was also widely known among Christian European philosophers. He defended pure Judaism, independent of Aristotle and based largely on the spiritual and emotional side of man. Biographers are rated as one of the most distinctive Jewish and generally medieval philosophers [2] [3] . Kreskas' innovative views on infinity and nature, space and time contributed to the anti-Aristotelian revolution in natural philosophy , thanks to which the possibility of creating new physics — classical mechanics [4] [5] .
Hasdai ben Yehuda Kreskas | |
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Heb. חסדאי קרשקש , isp. Hasdai Crescas , cat. Hasdai cresques | |
Date of Birth | 1340 (?) |
Place of Birth | Barcelona |
Date of death | 1410 (1411?) |
Place of death | Zaragoza |
A country | Spain |
Direction | Western philosophy, Jewish philosophy |
Period | Philosophy of the middle ages |
Main interests | Dogma , Physics , Metaphysics |
Significant ideas | statement of actual infinity , the existence of empty space , the infinity of space , inertia |
Influenced | Aristotle , Maimonides , Nikolai Orezmsky , Duns Scott , Nissim ben Reuven Gerondi (RAS) |
Influenced | Yosef Albo , Yitzhak ben Sheshet (RIVASH) Perfet |
Content
Biography
Rabbi Hasday bin Yehuda Kreskas was born around 1340 in a family of hereditary Jewish scholars in Barcelona . Possible etymology of the name Crescas is from the verb lat. "Crescere" ("grow, rise, succeed") . Names of parents: Yehuda and Regina. They had another son, Shmuel, and a daughter Wenges. In the preface to the book The Light of the Lord, Kresskas gives his genealogy: "Hasdai son of Yehuda, son of Hasdai, son of Yehuda, son of Hasdai, son of Yehuda." In Catalonia, a person took the name of his father as a surname, so the father of Hassdai was called Judah in Hebrew and Crescas in Catalan. The grandfather, Hasdai ben Yehuda Kreskas (“The Elder”), was a well-known rabbi [6] , his answers were repeatedly quoted by Yitzhak bin Sheshet Perpetom (RIVASH) [P 1] [P 2] [7] [8] . Kreskas studied with the famous rabbi Nissim ben Reuven Gerondi (known under the acronym of the Russian Academy of Sciences), the program of studies included philosophy. The RAS itself also studied philosophy, including being already familiar with the ideas of Gersonides and William Ockham [9] . Kreskas became a favorite student of the Russian Academy of Sciences, almost a son, and Reuven, son of the Russian Academy of Sciences, called him his brother. Some historians believe [10] that the mentioned Reuven married Venges, the sister of Hasdai Kreskas [11] .
In Barcelona, Kreskas struck up a long-standing friendship with Yitzhak bin Sheshet (RIVAS) Perfet , they were called “the two greats of Catalonia”, and in the letters themselves they called each other brothers. RIVASH wrote with Kreskas on such important issues as the conflict around the post of Rabbi of France [6] [P 3] [P 2] . Together they created a foundation to study the Torah and support the Jews who suffered from persecution in Spain [6] . Kreskas served as a rabbi of Barcelona for some time, where he married a girl named Tolrana, and they had a son, who was most likely called Yehuda or Crescas [11] . Hasdai Kreskas took part in a poetic competition of the Jewish poets of Barcelona and Girona in 1370, [1] and wrote a prayer poem in the Hebrew genre for the competition . “ סליחות” (slikhot, pleas for forgiveness), in which he asks God for victory over the “enemy” (bad motive or matter) [11] .
Kreskas was also interested in Kabbalah , as evidenced by evidence in anonymous Kabbalistic manuscripts, as well as his own work on the meaning of the Kaddish prayer [11] .
Many sources say that because of the intrigues of the enemies, Kresskas spent part of the prison in 1378 on charges of desecrating the guests [1] [12] . Other sources speak of five months imprisonment in 1373 [13] [K 1] . In 1383, he participated in negotiations on the restoration of Jewish privileges with Pedro IV, king of Aragon [1] . After his death, the whole period from 1387 to 1396, Crescas was an adviser to the king and queen of Aragon, Juan the First and Violanta, and was included in their palaces in Barcelona and Zaragoza. Queen Violanta, a French-born woman, loved science and art and encouraged their development, in which Crescas also participated. Among the titles that the royal couple called Kreskas are Master [14] and cat. "Juheu de casa nostra" (court Jew) [15] . RIVASH was the rabbi of Zaragoza from 1370 to 1385 , after which he moved to Valencia, and Kreskas with the permission of the king moved to Zaragoza to take the position of rabbi there. There he met the secretary of the king, the representative of early humanism Bernat Metzhe , the author of the poem "The Dream" , and may have influenced him [11] . Since at least 1389, and until his death, Kreskas officially held the post of Rabbi of Zaragoza and was recognized by the royal authority as a judge of the Jews of Aragon [16] , according to some sources was the rabbi of the whole of Aragon [6] .
In 1391, as a result of the anti-Jewish Christian propaganda and the sudden death of the king of Castile, a wave of pogroms swept through the territory of modern Spain. Whole Jewish communities ceased to exist, before the choice - baptism or death - many Jews preferred death in the name of faith, a small number managed to escape, and most were forced to accept baptism. The desperate resistance of the Jews in some places was broken, which is not surprising - in Barcelona, for example, they made up less than 10% of the population. There have been cases of suicides and murders of family members, only to avoid baptism. Pogroms spread to Aragon. In Zaragoza, the presence of the king prevented the pogroms, but in Barcelona they occurred. Despite the letter of King Juan I against pogroms, which emphasized that the family of “our court Jew and adviser Crescas” should be protected, the only son of Crescas gave his life for faith in Barcelona at the age of twenty, before he reached the appointed wedding [13] . There is a record of Reuven, the son of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which says that Kreskas managed to save Reuven and his family [17] . The pogroms are reflected in the message of Kreskas to the Jews of Avignon [6] [18] . Perhaps the choice of Avignon as the address was associated with negotiations with the Pope , who was then in this place. The king and Kreskas apparently hoped that the pope would ban pogroms. Some sources claim that Kreskas organized self-defense units in Zaragoza, reinforced by hired soldiers [19] .
Patrons of Kreskas: King of Aragon Juan I “The Hunter” and Queen Violanta de Bar, art lover |
After the pogroms, Kreskas led the rebuilding of the Jewish community in Barcelona and Valencia , they also turned to him for help from France, and Zaragoza became the center of Jewish life in the Iberian Peninsula. Kreskas received permission from the king to take a second wife named Jamila to restore offspring after the death of his son [1] , Jamila bore him three daughters: Mira, Sim and Duenia, as well as a son, whose name was most likely Yehuda or Crescas [20] . In 1396, Kresskas issued something like a constitution — temporary amendments to the statutes of the Jewish community, which strengthened the centralization of power so much that Queen Violant abolished some of these innovations in 1399 . Creskas was able to agree with the king of Navarre, Charles III, on the placement of Jewish refugees in Navarre. Crescas visited Pamplona in 1401 as an emissary of the Aragonese king Martin I and during negotiations with the king of Navarre Charles III , apparently, touched upon the placement of the Jewish masses [21] [22] . Charles III issued a decree that the Jewish population is loyal and beneficial to the state and that he wants to accept them. Kresskas also organized the relocation of many Jews to Palestine , for which he held talks with Sultan Barkuk al-Zahir [20] . Some historians hypothesized that during these negotiations, Kresskas tried to gain autonomy for Palestinian Jews [K 2] [20] . At the time of Crescas, Moses Botarel lived, a Kabbalist from the city of Cisneros. Botharel claimed that he was elected to the Jewish Messiah , and Kresskas recognized him as a possible candidate [23] [24] .
The look of a medieval Spanish Jew in the painting “ Saint Helena interrogates Judas” and its fragment. 1485-87. Oil on the panel. 77 x 45 x 5. Art Museum in Zaragoza. |
Kreskas, as before Nahmanides , took part in Christian-Jewish disputes and considered them as part of the protection of the Jews. He also wrote in Catalan at least two polemical books against Christians, of which only one came to us, and then in retelling in Hebrew. Unlike all the literature of this kind, Kreskas's book did not analyze Bible verses, but criticized Christianity from philosophical positions and logic, since he believed that religion should not force people to believe in things that are not consistent with logic.
Kreskas also offered Efodi write a polemical book, and he really wrote the Hebrew essay . כלימת גויים (Klimat goyim, Shame on Nations) . Apparently, Kreskas was a skilled polemicist, and some successful statements on disputes were used by his students in their writings. The largest dispute in history (the dispute in Tortosa ), however, took place two years after Kreskas’s death, and the basis of the Jewish delegation were his students, the main one of whom was Josef Albo . Zerahia Halevi [K 3] , who became a rabbi in Zaragoza after Crescas, also took part. During this debate, both Christian and Jewish sides repeatedly quoted Crescas’s statements about the messiah [23] . There is some evidence that, in his advanced years, Kresskas was also engaged in the practical aspect of Kabbalah, and even gained a reputation as a wonderworker [20] .
The enormous amount of social work of Kreskas made it difficult for him to complete his main work - the book “The Light of the Lord”, completed just six months before his death, which followed no earlier than December 1410 and no later than February 1411 [16] [20] . After Kreskas, there was a whole galaxy of students engaged in both the translation and publication of his writings, and the writing of his own. So, Joseph Albo wrote the philosophical Heb. “ ספר העקרים” (“Sefer ha-Yikkarim”, “The Book of Foundations”) [ 13] , which had a great influence. Another famous student is Joseph Ibn Habib [K 4] , author of the book of Heb. " נימוקי יוסף" ("Nimuke Yosef", "Arguments of Yosef") , printed in all standard editions of the Talmud .
According to legend, the Jews of Zaragoza were in danger of a pogrom after libel that they only pretend to render King Martin I , in whose service Kreskas was serving, the highest honors - they carry the Torah scrolls, but in fact there are no scrolls in the cases. But the servant of the synagogue found out in a dream about the danger and prevented it. The event is remembered as “Zaragossky Purim ”, and some celebrate it on the 17-18 of the month of Shvat [25] [26] . Whether these legendary events took place or not, the Jews of Zaragoza after Crescas existed safely before the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 . The old Jewish quarter was completely rebuilt, the streets changed their names, and only a few streets remained from the new Jewish quarter, also renamed. According to the documents, it was possible to establish that Kreskas lived in the old Jewish quarter on the street . "De los Torneros" (Potter Street) , now Spanish. calle "Veronica" (Veroniki St.) [27] [28] .
Traces of the Jewish quarter in Zaragoza | |||||||||
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Works
Light of the Lord
Contents
The main work of Hasdai Kreskas Ivr . “ 'אור ה” (“Or Adonai” [29] , “The Light of the Lord”), begun no later than 1405 and completed in the last year of the author’s life in the winter of 1410 - 1411 [20] , is a systematic exposition of Jewish dogma, containing, perhaps, more original and deep, purely philosophical discoveries and arguments than any other Jewish treatise of the Middle Ages. This work is directed against the foundations of Aristotelian philosophy, not only from religious, but also from philosophical positions; as the author himself stated in the preface:
The reason for the mistakes and bewilderment is in relying on the words of the Greek [Aristotle] and his evidence, and I found it correct to point out the falsity of these evidence ... also where our teacher [Maimonides] relied on them ... and show all peoples that there was confusion in questions faith eliminates only the Torah [6] .
Presenting his ideas in a style devoid of rhetoric and characterized by clarity and conciseness, despite the undeveloped philosophical terminology in medieval Hebrew , he tries to undermine Aristotle's position, using his own weapon - logical analysis and evidence. Kreskas’s criticism of Aristotelianism had historical significance; defending freedom in interpreting the Torah, he also advocated the liberation of philosophy and science from the dogmatically accepted teachings of Aristotle.
The treatise “The Light of the Lord” is divided into four books, which analyze:
- prerequisites, or roots ( Heb. שורשים (shorashim)) , the Torah;
- basics ( Hebrew ( פינות) pinnot ) Torah (attributes of God and his relationship with the world);
- other mandatory beliefs prescribed by the Torah;
- some optional ideas or speculations.
The first book is of the greatest philosophical interest. Following Maimonides , Kreskas includes the existence of God, unity and disembodiedness in the list of Torah roots. In the three parts of this first book, Kresskas refutes the Aristotelian doctrine and the doctrine of Maimonides himself and outlines the ways for the development of his own philosophy.
The second book lays the foundation for understanding the Torah, talks about the essence of God, his attributes and his connection with our material world. The third book is devoted to the interpretation of truths, thanks to which the Torah becomes, first and foremost, an instruction, since it contains teachings worthy of believing in them. Book four includes some statements that provide the reader with food for thought and which he can accept or reject.
Kreskas also conceived of the continuation - “The Lamp of the Lord”, but sudden death prevented his writing [6] . One of the preface to the “Light of the Lord” was conceived as a preface to the “Lamp of the Lord”, where Kreskas outlines criticism of Maimonides in terms of halacha . Along with the usual reproach that Maimonides did not cite the sources, Kreskas also reproaches him for planning to describe the whole law, while he will still change in the future [30] , and did not give grounds and general laws of the commandments [31] .
In medieval Jewish literature, Kreskas was quoted by Yosef Albo , Abrabanel and others [18] . The famous researcher Harry Wolfson considered Crescas the founder of critical philosophy [18] . The famous philosopher Warren Harvey describes Maimonides as the most important Jewish medieval philosopher, and Kreskas as his most important critic [16] .
Editions
The manuscripts of the book are preserved in Paris , Vienna, and Florence , altogether no less than eleven manuscripts, some written by one of the students [32] . The book was first printed in 1555 in Ferrara , then again in 1859 in Vienna, 1861 in Johannesburg, 1905 in Vilna . The style of the author was very concise, in the retelling of other people's opinions there were significant omissions. Numerous errors crept into the print media, so that in the partial publication of individual chapters in 1980 considerable work was done to restore the correct text, as well as to explain the difficult terms of medieval Hebrew [33] . The book has become quite accessible thanks to the modernly agreed edition prepared by Rabbi Shlomo Fisher with a glossary and notes [34] . Professor Warren Zeev Harvey works on the first scientific critical edition of “The Light of the Lord” [16] [35] . So far, there are no translations of Crescas, except for individual places at Harvey and Wolfson.
Other writings
Poem of prayer
It was written around 1370 [16] for a poetic competition in the genre “ Heb. חליחות (" selichot ", "Forgiveness") ", in which the author asks God to win over the" enemy "(bad motivation, it is the body or matter). The poem is addressed to this matter in the feminine gender, and to the mind (it is also a form or a good impulse) - in the masculine. Kreskas explained that these assimilations he took from Plato , whom he calls the "head of parable makers", and from Maimonides , whom he calls "the decoration of the wise men" [11] .
Kabbalistic essay on the meaning of the Kaddish prayer
Written, apparently, even during the teachings in Barcelona, it opens with a preface, compiled, probably, a student of Crescas. The essay itself draws a parallel between the ten words of praise of the Kaddish and 10 Sefirot . ” Prior to this, similar ideas were developed by the kabbalists of the Girona school.
Controversial writings against Christianity
As part of the fight against the vast amount of Christian literature intended for Jews and converts, Kresskas wrote in Catalan a book entitled “Denial of the principles of Christianity” ( 1397 - 1398 ). This work was preserved only in a partial retelling in Hebrew under the name Hebrew. " ביטול רי הנוצרים" ("Bittul ikarei ha-notzrim", "Refutation of the Foundations of the Christian Faith") ( 1451 ) [36] . Kreskas believed that religion should not force one to believe in things that are not consistent with logic, and criticized Christianity from philosophical positions and logic, rather than analyzing passages from the Bible. In the preface, Kreskas mentions that many respectable and important people asked him to write this work. Some historians believe that there could be Christians among them who wanted to understand Judaism [10] . The book has ten chapters, each of which is devoted to the analysis of one of the Christian dogmas [K 5] [20] .
Medieval manuscript miniature
Engraving of Johann von Armsheim (Johann von Armssheim), 1483
Sermons on Passover
In 1988, Aviezer Ravitsky produced a scientific publication and a detailed analysis of the "Sermon on the Passover " by Crescas, found in two manuscripts in Hebrew. It is of considerable scientific interest, as it was written before the “Light of the Lord”, and therefore makes it possible to follow the evolution of Crescas’s views, as well as the influence on them at different stages. For example, the influence of Avner from Burgos it is felt only at a late stage [36] .
Chronicle of the Pogroms of 1391
Written in the form of the Epistle to the Jews of Avignon , an exalted style, with multiple allusions to the biblical books, above all, the Lament of Jeremiah [16] . It is dated October 19, 1391 (the 20th day of the month of Heswan 5151 according to the Jewish calendar) [K 6] and describes the spread of the wave of pogroms that arose in Seville on June 4, 1391 (1st Tammuz 5151 according to the Jewish calendar). Crescas does not describe the causes of the tragic events, namely the agitation of Archdeacon Ferrando Martinez and the weakness of the royal house in Castile, but he mentions that the rulers of Aragon were against pogroms. The message describes in detail where and how many people died, both at the hands of thugs, and as a result of suicides in fear of forced baptism. Crescas pays special attention to events in Toledo and Barcelona . The offspring of the famous Talmud commentator Asher ben Yehiel (ROSH) died in Toledo - ROSH's great-grandson sacrificed his wife and children. The authorities tried to stop the pogroms and arrested some of the instigators, but the mob released them from prison and attacked the Jews who had locked themselves in a castle (at Kreskas “tower”). The Jews put up armed resistance, but the attackers had many times more people and weapons. Some Jews were killed, others committed suicide by jumping from a tower or with a weapon, others went outside to die. The only son of Kreskas himself [13] , who did not live to his already appointed wedding, died there at the age of twenty. A small number of people managed to escape, and thus ended the history of the Jewish community in Barcelona. During the pogroms, RIVASH was also forcibly baptized, who later managed to escape to North Africa and return to the faith of his fathers [17] .
Crescas's philosophy
Crescas Theology
The changed situation influenced the theology of Kreskas - the main threat to Jewry was no longer philosophical rationalism, but Christianity . The constant pressure of Christianity, disputes and baptism led to the fact that Crescas wrote a polemical essay against Christianity. Echoes of controversy are felt in the main work of Kreskas, The Light of God [37] .
Foundations of Faith
Crescas revised the famous 13 principles of Maimonides' faith and reduced their number to six. The principles, the negation of which is equivalent, according to Crescas, to the negation of the entire Torah:
- Omniscience of God
- God is watching the creatures
- Omnipotence of God
- The existence of prophecy
- The presence of freedom of choice in humans
- The presence of the ultimate goal of Creation
Principles based on the Torah are less important, but their denial does not entail denial of the Torah:
- Creation of the world from nothing
- Immortality of the soul
- Reward for good and evil
- Resurrection of the Dead
- Eternity of the Torah
- The Truth of Moses' Prophecy
- Belief in Urim and Thummim
- Faith in the coming of the Messiah
There is also a list of beliefs based on the Torah, but not required by faith. Kreskas believed that the basis of Judaism is not intellectual understanding. Although the intellect can lead to the comprehension of some of the foundations of faith, but, regardless of it, the main foundation is Divine Revelation, therefore a conclusion from the Torah is a sufficient basis [38] .
Original Sin
Although many Jewish commentators pointed out that after the fall of Adam the very nature of man changed, Kreskas is almost the only Jewish Jewish philosopher who interpreted the fall as the original sin to be atoned for [P 4] . Kreskas was based on the statement of the Talmud that “since the primitive serpent came to Hava , he laid impurity on us ( Hebrew זוהמה,“ zuhama ” ), but this impurity came down from the people of Israel who stood on Mount Sinai " [P 5] . Kreskas explains that the fall of Adam caused in him a strong desire for materiality. Later, however, Abraham appeared in the world, who was ready to sacrifice Isaac , and thereby sacrifice the whole people of Israel. For this, God made the New Testament with him and saved him from striving for matter. The interpretation of Yitzhak's sacrifice as a prototype of the entire future fate of the Jewish people with its self-sacrifice is characteristic of Kreskas, which is especially understandable, given the death of Kreskas himself’s son. Thereby, Heb. עקדה (“akeda”, “binding of Isaac”) and Abraham's covenant of flesh — circumcision redeems the original sin [39] [40] .
The meaning of the commandments
From the above interpretation it follows that one of the meanings of the commandments, according to Kreskas, is redemptive. In addition to this, Kreskas cites other meanings, at the same time arguing with Christians who claimed that the commandments were given only for a time, for the initial development of humanity. Kreskas argues that the descendants of Abraham in Egypt showed the ability for selflessness and were not at any particularly low level at all, so it is for them that many commandments are needed.
According to Kreskas, the commandments have several types of goals: primary, intermediate and final. First of all, a person with the help of the commandments corrects character, attains intellectual and moral perfection, establishes a fair social structure and causes love between people. All this, however, according to Kreskas, is not the ultimate meaning of the commandments.
The subsequent meanings of the commandments are to ensure the perfection of the soul, so that it can exist after death. The main goal, however, is to arouse a person’s love for God, to stick a person to him, and, as a result, lead a person to happiness ( eudaimonism ). Love is the ultimate goal of not only the subject, but also the object of the commandments. A person reaches a state when he is constantly in the radiance of the Divine presence, both during life and after death [41] .
In the Kreskas explanation of the meaning of the commandments, one can feel the creative processing of the ideas of Yehuda Halevi , Maimonides , Gersonides , Abraham ibn Daud , Saadiya Gaon . Unlike many predecessors, Kresskas does not use the concept of “disciplinary commandments”, which are given to give people more merit. According to Kreskas, commandments that are not rationally designed are designed to perfect a person in order to bring about the immortality of the soul. This agrees with another discrepancy between Kreskas, on the one hand, and Maimonides and Gersonides, on the other: Kreskas denies that the immortality of the soul concerns only reason. According to Kreskas, other parts of the personality, such as emotions, and among them, above all, love for the Almighty, also belong to the immortal part of the soul [42] . Knowledge as such does not ensure the immortality of the soul, but some knowledge is necessary as the basis of the Torah and its commandments [43] . In addition, Kresskas denies the transmigration of souls recognized by Kabbalah, and this is characteristic, since Kresskas took only separate ideas from Kabbalah, and not the whole system [43] .
Of significant interest is the interpretation of the first commandment at Crescas. In contrast to the usual understanding of Maimonides, Kresskas categorically objects to the existence of commandments, the content of which is faith. He proves in three ways (logic, halacha , psychology) that the commandment to believe in something does not exist, and above all there can be no commandment to believe in God. The commandments, according to Kreskas, can only be in action. This viewpoint found a response in the teachings of Moses Mendelssohn . The last in his main work "Jerusalem" criticizes Maimonides, that he has departed from the ancient Jewish tradition not to constitute the dogmas of faith. As a positive answer, Mendelssohn mentions the names of Crescas, Albo and others. Thus, Kreskas laid the foundation for the notion that commandments are only in actions (Jewish orthopraxia ), which is supported by some modern thinkers, such as Ishayay Leybovich who mentioned Kreskas as a great religious philosopher [44] .
The Attribute Problem of God
The problem that many have been doing in the Middle Ages is whether God has positive attributes, namely, how to understand such words as “merciful”, “good” and the like in relation to God. Maimonides held an extreme position in this matter. All the words that apply to God and to someone else are just pairs of pure homonyms , pairs of words that have different meanings, but coincidentally coinciding. Accordingly, all the places where the Bible applies epithets to God should be considered pure metaphors, and there can be no analogy or assimilation between God and another object.
Many other thinkers did not go so far. Thus, Gersonid believes that there is a definite connection between the epithets applied to God and the epithets applied to something else. The first expresses the original, true meaning of the word, and the second - the later, distorted and simplified meaning.
Kreskas initially fully took up the position of Maimonides, subjecting Hersonide to sharp criticism. In a later period, however, the influence of the Latin scholastics [45] , and then the Kabbalah , especially the teachings of Azriel from Gerona , affected. Kreskas moved first to the position of Gersonides:
However, the general meaning of the word [existence] is that the object to which existence is attributed is not absent, and thus it affects God, blessed be He, and other substances, namely that they are not absent, only this is said about him in an a priori sense, and about other creatures in a posteriori . From this it is clear that the word "exists" affects Him and about other creatures not in an absolutely equivocal sense, but as a kind of amphibole [P 6] [46] .
Then Creskas went further, asserting the presence of essential attributes ( Hebrew תארים עצמיים, te'arim atzmi'im ), identified with the ten Sefirot .
Such a position was dangerously close to Christianity, so even RIVASH, criticizing Kabbalah, compared the belief of "some philosophizing" in decimals with the faith of Christians in triplicity [P 7] [P 2] . A similar remark was made by the translator of the writings of Kreskas Ivr. ביטול עקרי הנוצרים (Bittul ikarei ha-notzrim, Refutation of the Foundations of Christian Faith) Shem Tov Ben Yosef Ibn Shem Tov in the place where Kresskas examines the Christian faith in the trinity. Creskas managed to remain at a position acceptable to other orthodox thinkers and preserve the unity and immateriality of the Divine. Creskas used to illustrate the image from the book "Yetzirah" : flame and coal, flame (an attribute attribute) does not exist without coal (an analogue of a substance ), but it is not. As a result, Kreskas remains convinced that God is transcendental and unknowable, although the essential attributes (Sefirot) are immanent. The later most famous Kabbalist Meir ibn Gabbai praised the descriptions of the Sefirot in Crescas [47] .
Metaphysics
Evidence of God's Being
Kreskas retold the cosmological evidence of the Being of God according to Maimonides, proceeding from the rotation of the celestial sphere, and refuted it in many points.
The study of the evidence of the Master about the existence of God, his unity, that He is incorporeal and is not a force in the body. We will study the question from two points of view. The first is the doubtfulness of many of the provisions on which Maimonides' evidence is based. The second is whether the proof of Maimonides will be indisputable, even if these provisions are proved. Considering the first evidence of Maimonides, we find that it is based on seven points about which we have already proved that their falsity is possible. In Maimonides’s list of postulates this is position 1, otherwise the engine of the celestial sphere can be an infinite body with infinite power, position 2, otherwise the sphere can move by another sphere and so on to infinity, position 3, otherwise there can be an infinite number of engines, position 8, otherwise the engine it may turn out to be indivisible force in the body, like the soul or intellect, position 12, otherwise the engine can be a body with infinite strength. It also requires the truth of position 26, otherwise the engine may be a force distributed in the body and possessing finite energy, or even a force not distributed in the body and possessing finite energy. Since the preceding paragraphs have already established that the reasoning establishing the truth of this evidence is incorrect, therefore, all of Maimonides’s evidence is invalid. As for the second point of view, even then the evidence is refuted for two reasons ... [P 8]
He came to the conclusion that religion is not based on rational scientific research [P 9] [38] , although science does not contradict religion, because truth cannot contradict truth [48] .
Crescas questioned Maimonides’s metaphysical evidence, especially the use of the axiom on the impossibility of an endless chain of causes and effects. Instead, Crescas offered his own metaphysical evidence:
Causes and effects may be infinite or finite, but we inevitably come to the fact that there must be some cumulative cause of all of them, which gives preference to their existence over non-existence. Such is the reason for the totality of them all, that is, the preferences of their existence over non-existence, and this is God, may He be blessed. Thus, the existence of God is proven beyond all doubt [P 10] .
Thus, Kreskas admits that it can and can be proved in a rational way the existence of God, but, in any case, not knowing his will and attributes [38] .
God of love and joy
Maimonides repeats the Aristotelian formula that God is a self-conscious mind [P 11] . Levy Ben Gershom fully supports this thesis [49] . Thus, the forerunners of Kreskas in religious philosophy believed that God is pure reason.
Aristotelians, on the other hand, also attribute joy to God. Gersonides, for example, even includes the idea of divine joy in the list of five foundations of faith [K 7] .
Cresscas points out that Aristotelian philosophy contains a contradiction, since God as pure intellect cannot be subject to emotions. According to Kreskas, God is not a pure intellect, and there really is joy, but not passion, as with created beings, but action. In other words, the joy of God is his actions, first of all the creation and maintenance of the World. Moreover, it is the filling of the World with love that makes the World harmonious, it is as if filled with this love [50] and moved by it, as if it were the main natural force. Some modern scholars see the main significance of Crescas in this thesis [3] .
The formula of blessing established by our Wise Men: “in whose dwelling joy” [P 12] should be understood literally, we do not need to turn to allegory in this case ... Since joy is something in common between God that gives its good to be poured out and from creatures that they receive this good, therefore, true joy is “in his dwelling” ( Hebrew במעונו “bemeono” ), that is, in his abode ( Hebrew במשכנו “bemishkano” ), in the kingdom heaven, where is the abode of spiritual beings ( Heb. רוחניים "ruhaniim" ) [P 13] .
Since love and joy have such a high ontological status, and man is akin to God, Kresskas attaches great importance to these feelings in man, it is love that is the ultimate goal of man [45] [P 14] . Along the way, he solves the problem of retribution for convictions. According to Kreskas, a person is not free to choose his convictions, but comes to them under the influence of reason. Then how can convictions lead to punishment or reward? The answer, according to Kreskas, is that not the convictions themselves, but the emotions accompanying them attract reward, the person is not responsible for the convictions, but for the feelings. Thereby, the superiority of will over reason is asserted, which is probably the influence of Duns Scotus [51] .
Determinism and freedom of choice
Kreskas takes a peculiar and very radical position on the question of free will and its compatibility with the omniscience of the Most High, encompassing the future as well [P 15] [52] . In this position, the influence is no longer Greek, but Latin scholasticism, primarily Duns Scotus . Such influence is quite possible, since two followers of D. Thin Scot, the “subtle doctor” - Alfred Gonteri (Anfredus Gonteri) and Peter Tomai (Peter Thomae) taught in Barcelona in the immediate vicinity of the Jewish quarter [53] . Crescas's analysis begins with whether the possible exists. After examining the arguments for and against, Kreskas concludes that things are possible in things as such, but things themselves are predetermined from the point of view of the reasons that caused them.
Thus, the cause causes a manifestation of the will, but the will itself remains without necessity and coercion ( Heb. חייוב והכרח, hiyuv vehekreh ). Due to the very nature of this, the ability to desire both alternatives is maintained, if only the cause did not cause a greater desire for one of the alternatives, so that the person feels neither compulsion nor restriction ( Heb. לא ירגיש בשום הכרח ואונס, lo yargish be- shum hekrekh ve-ones vehekreh ). Since the ability to desire is equally preserved, it is called will, and not necessity [P 16] .
In fact, this means complete determinism , which, according to Kreskas himself, is dangerous for the masses [53] . Kreskas goes even further in the matter of beliefs. And determinism reigns in this area too, but there is no longer any illusion of freedom of choice. A person feels his convictions as imposed by force [36] .
We say that since it was explained that will has no relation to beliefs, but the believer feels the need to be a believer, it is clear that we have no choice but to define choice and will as something like unity and connection with beliefs on the part of the believer, and this pleasure and joy, with which He blessed us when He blessed us with his faith and diligence to defend its truth, and this is undoubtedly a matter of will and choice [54] [P 17] .
In this regard, the most important questions: how this doctrine is combined with the principle of retribution and what is the meaning of the commandments. In fact, what is the point of punishing the criminal and giving a reward to the righteous when he was not free in his actions? Kreskas gives two answers to this. First, and the reward comes by itself, just as a person burns, coming too close to the fire. The commandments are called to save a person from troubles. In another place, Kreskas suggests that punishments and rewards do not come for actions, for they are determined, but for the feelings with which these actions are accompanied [53] . Thus, Kreskas’s determinism extends to a person’s actions and beliefs, but not to his emotions. A person may be an atheist reluctantly, but feel the sadness of this free will. This residual freedom distinguishes Crescas's determinism from Spinoza's determinism [52] . Apparently, Kreskas does not imply any retribution for beliefs in which, as already mentioned, there is no illusion of freedom [36] .
According to some researchers, it is possible that Crescas wanted to give comfort to the marranes , who suffered from forced baptism [52] . The deterministic views of Crescas were criticized by Shmuel David Luzatto who considered them to be the source of the heresy of Spinozism [55] . Later researcher Harry Wolfson also pointed out that Spinoza’s thesis that free choice is an illusion has already been formulated by Crescas [56] .
Natural Philosophy
Kreskas undoubtedly made a valuable contribution to the development of physics, although it is difficult to unambiguously evaluate how unique and original his views were. Some historians believe that Kresskas was the first active supporter of the notion of an infinite homogeneous space, and compare this revolution in views on space with Copernican [5] . Others pay special attention to Krescas’s refusal to identify a space with a space occupied by the body [57] . Some, on the contrary, note similarities with the teachings of John Philopon and Abul Barakat Al-Baghdadi , although there is no direct reason to talk about direct influence [58] . Others consider it a bright, but typical representative of the scholasticism of their century [59] . In any case, Kreskas confined himself to criticizing previous thinkers and did not offer any consistent theory of his own [60] , perhaps because he believed that the power of reason was sufficient to criticize the achievements of reason, but not to comprehend the truth [61] .
Actual Infinity
Aristotle and his followers denied the possibility of actual infinity, since the assumption of infinity leads to paradoxes, but they allowed potential infinity, as a time in which you can go back infinitely far. Some, like Gersonides , denied the potential infinity of quantitative values as time [62] . The historians of science believe that even Galileo had the first instructions on how to work with actually infinite sets, long before the development of the theory of infinite sets by Georg Cantor . However, even before Galileo, Kresskas expressed similar ideas. Arguing about the possibility of the existence of an infinite chain of separated intelligences, each of which is the cause of the subsequent one, and all of them exist simultaneously, since they are eternal, Kreskas wrote:
And therefore, if we assume the existence of a chain of causes and effects, in which the first is the cause of the second, and the second is the cause of the third, and so on to infinity, I would like to know how, if we assume the existence of a common cause for all these links, one can deny the infinity of the number of causes and consequences? [P 18] [63]
It is known that some of the ideas of Crescas were retold in Latin by Jafranchesko Pico della Mirandola, and the influence of the latter on Galileo is possible, although not proven. Be that as it may, with influence on Galileo, Crescas was the first to argue that actual infinity is possible, and the concepts of "greater", "equal" and "less" for infinity should be defined differently. He made a clear distinction between the finite elements of the set of numbers and the infinite set of numbers [64] [65] [P 19] .
The nature of space and time
According to Aristotle, space is determined by a body that occupies space, and it is impossible to talk about emptiness. In contrast, according to Kreskas, there is empty space in which bodies move [P 19] . Although the concept of emptiness itself is found in the Pythagoreans (“many of the ancients” at Crescas) and known to Crescas through Aristotle, his idea of emptiness is radically different from Pythagorean, in particular, he rejects the role of emptiness in the creation of things [66] . Nevertheless, explaining his idea that emptiness permeates and precedes things, Kresskas metaphorically quotes the Sages of the Talmud: “And by the will of God, who is the place of the world” [P 20] , which apparently also shows the influence of ideas Kabbalists [67] .
Consequently, and in accordance with truth, which itself testifies to itself and is consistent with itself, the true place is emptiness. The fact that it should be this way is also derived from the fact that a place can be equal to the place of the whole and parts ... Since the meaning of a place is generally accepted, many among the ancients identified the true place of a thing with its form, because form determines things and individualizes them as in general and in the parts [P 21] [68] .
The situation is similar with time, which also does not depend on the movement of bodies and precedes it [P 22] . Thus, Crescas was the first to take a step from Aristotelian ideas that space and time are associated with bodies, to Newtonian space and time that precede bodies. Unlike Aristotle, Crescas thought of an infinite space-continuum, which can contain many worlds, which was an innovation. Like Aristotle, Crescas was thinking endlessly. But in Crescas, it continuously exists independently of the bodies and their movements. In addition, at the present moment, according to Kreskas, an infinitely long time has passed [56] [64] .
Motion Theory
Kresskas denied the Aristotle picture that land and water tend downward, and air and fire upward. All bodies have weight and tend down, but some are stronger and others are weaker. At the same time, the heavier ones in their striving for the center of the world crowd out the less severe ones [69] .
When they talked about the forced movement, like the movement of a stone upwards, they were carried away by the views of the famous Greek that the elements have opposite natural movements, so that the stone tends downwards and the fire - upwards. And they deduced that some elements, like the earth, have only gravity, and fire - only lightness, and water and air - a combination of gravity and lightness. And this view has not been sufficiently explained, and will not. Because it can be said that each element has a certain severity, and they differ in the degree of this severity. Therefore, the movement of fire up occurs due to the severity of the air, which pushes the fire from below. As is the case with a stone placed in a crucible, where molten gold, or molten lead, or mercury, and the stone tends to rise due to the gravity pressure of the metals [P 23] .
The elements aspire to the center of their world, and this destroys Aristotle’s argument against the multiplicity of worlds, consisting in the fact that then the elements will flow from one world to another — they will not, as everyone aspires to the center of his world. At the same time, Kreskas denies that the center of the world is the target cause of the movement of things; instead, they move because of their own nature and structure.
Creskas denied the Aristotelian thesis that the substance of the Earth and the substance of celestial bodies are of a different nature, although he did not take the next logical step, that celestial bodies are also subject to destruction. Both celestial and terrestrial bodies have natural movement [70] . This thesis, persistently repeated by Kreskas, largely contributed to the subsequent development of celestial mechanics [71] . In the category of natural motion, Kreskas introduced the movement of iron to a magnet, which, according to Kreskas, occurs due to its own nature and structure [72] . In particular, the natural movement of the celestial spheres is a rotation, and it does not require an assumption about the perpetual motion of the sky, which disproves the cosmological proof of the existence of God according to Maimonides and other predecessors of Crescas [P 23] .
Creation and Time
According to Crescas, time is infinite and continuous and exists independently of bodies. In one place he writes that time is in the soul, that is, it is supposedly of a subjective character [P 19] . But in another place, Kreskas asserts that time is comprehended by the intellect [P 24] , that is, it is objective in nature [73] .
The creation of the World took place at some point in time, that is, time existed before the creation of the World, which, according to Kreskas, can be seen from the statements of the Sages of the Talmud : Rabbi Yehuda bar Simon said: “the order of times was before them [heaven and earth] " [P 25] . From this point of view, the question arises: why is this moment remarkable, that it was chosen for the creation of the World? Levi Ben Gershon (Gersonid) rejects this question, since it can be asked about any moment. Kresskas gives a completely different solution to the question - the Almighty constantly creates worlds that follow one after another in a time sequence. In addition to the reasoning, Kresskas reinforces his position with a quote from the Talmud Sages: “God created the worlds and destroyed them” [P 25] .
Kresskas admits that worlds have the same dignity, but is inclined to believe that in the series of these worlds, each succeeding world is more perfect than the previous ones. Moreover, our own world can exist forever or be replaced by a more perfect one, just as the animal kingdom is more perfect than the vegetable one. Kresskas notes that this cannot be proved by reason, and one can only quote the Kabbalistic tradition. As another source, Kresskas quotes from Yehuda Halevi : “If, in addition, the believer in the law [of Torah] sees for itself the need to accept the idea of eternal matter and the consistent existence of many worlds, this will not diminish his belief that this world is created in time and that Adam and Noah gave rise to mankind ” [P 26] . An additional quotation from the Talmud is interpreted by Kreskas in the sense that our world will be destroyed and replaced by another world: “Our world will exist for six thousand years, and another thousand will be destroyed” [P 27] [P 28] .
Nowhere does Kreskas explicitly indicate whether the sequence of worlds will be infinite. According to the reconstructions of famous researchers Harry Wolfson and M.S. Urbach, the sequence of Kreskas worlds is infinite. Thus, the picture of the world of Kreskas has an optimistic coloring: an endless sequence of cultivating worlds [74] .
Multiple Worlds
Cresscas refutes the arguments of Aristotle about the impossibility of many worlds, since these arguments are based on the impossibility of infinite magnitudes, so that beyond the limits of our world there can be neither an infinite vacuum, nor an infinite medium [P 19] . In passing, Kreskas notes another weak argument from Aristotle that in the case of multiple worlds, the elements of one world would fall into another world. Kreskas notes that even within the framework of Aristotle's theory, each element has its own natural place, in each world the elements would strive for a natural place in their own world, and not in someone else's, and the overflow of elements would not occur. All this leads Kreskas to the statement that the infinite Universe can contain many worlds. The natural consequence that in an infinite universe there are an infinite number of worlds, Creskas is not explicitly present, but is a reconstruction of Harry Wolfson , although this author also notes that in one place Crescas considers the number of worlds indicated in the Talmud to be a hyperbole [75] .
Another quote from the Talmud that is important for Creskas is that “the Most High travels through 18 thousand worlds” [P 29] . According to Kreskas, this means that these worlds deserve Divine control, which is also a pioneering idea. According to Kreskas, the Most High created the worlds in his goodness and compassion, and the more worlds, the more the goodness of God can manifest. However, in this discussion, Kreskas took into account the arguments against actual infinity, which he himself refuted in other places, probably written later, and came to the conclusion that the wisdom of the Creator limits the number of worlds [76] .
Although this possibility [of the existence of an infinite number of worlds] is true and unquestionable, we are not able to rational study methods to know the true nature of what is outside our world, therefore our Sages of the Talmud, peace with them, found it necessary to warn us [P 30] not to study and research "what is above and what is below, what is before and what is after" [P 19] .
Science and religion
Kresskas came to a new description of the relationship between science and religion. According to Kreskas, there is no antagonism between them, but cooperation. Religion is designed to improve not only the soul, but also the mind, and science is able to help religion in explaining the commandments [2] . One should neither read the book of Genesis through the prism of current physical theories, nor fit the physical theories under the Bible [3] .
Matter and Form
According to Aristotle, matter is of a potential nature and becomes a real object only because the form takes possession of it. In the ideas developed by Kreskas, matter is more relevant, and the form is only its incident . Cresscas, however, retains the term “form”, since there are significant differences between the form and other accidents [71] .
Philosophical sources used by Kreskas
Pierre Dugem first suggested in 1917 the influence of Nikolai Orezmsky on Crescas, which is reinforced not only by the ideas themselves, but also by geographical proximity. Both Orezm and Kresskas visited Navarre, both were in royal service, Kresskas was the representative of Martin I , and Orezm was of the French king Charles V [21] [77] ; it is possible that they met in person [78] . Nikolay discussed for thirty years before Crescas the multiplicity of worlds, as well as the infinity of space and time. Orezm’s presumptive influence on Kreskas, and through him on Spinoza, served as a confirmation of the thesis of Duhem, that “the synagogue only reflects the development of Christian scholasticism” [79] . There are, however, large differences between the teachings of Orezm and Creskas, which led the researcher of the philosophy of GA. Wolfson to the opposite conclusion - that Kreskas should be considered an original and deep thinker [80] .
Orezm discusses the plurality of worlds, both in space and in temporal sequence, and as a result concludes that only the world known to us exists, although the Most High could have created many. Kresskas, however, believed that there was not enough evidence to reject or accept
multiplicity of worlds. At first glance, it seems that both philosophers spoke about the same thing about infinite space, time and vacuum. However, there are fundamental differences. Kreskas thinks of space and time as physical realities, space in our world and outside it is the same, just as time is the same in successive worlds. Space and time are continuous and divisible. According to Orezm, however, only God exists outside our world. The supernatural vacuum is indivisible and associated with the Divine. That is, Orezm’s theory refers to theology or mysticism, but not to physics. Unlike Crescas, Orezm does not reject Aristotelian ideas about space and time, but only limits them to our world [81] .
Kreskas never refers to Nicholas of Orezmsky, but quotes Aristotle, Maimonides and Gersonides many times. In addition to them, Kreskas uses the ideas and writings of Avicenna , Al-Farabi , Al-Ghazali , Abraham Ibn Daud , Femistia , Averroes , Ibn Badzh , Al-Tabrizi, Alexander Afrodisiysky , Moshe Narboni , Apollonius of Perga , although not all of them were translated into Hebrew, and the Greek Crescas did not know. In addition, he mentions without specifying the names of the “wise men of antiquity” (perhaps the Pythagoreans [66] are meant), “commentators of Aristotle”, “philosophers other than Aristotle”, “later authors”, “one of the commentators of the Guidebook”, “ followers of Avicenna and Algazali ” [82] .
In Crescas’s doctrine of determinism and free will, modern scholars also see the influence of Duns Scott [51] and Avner from Burgos [36] , the influence of Thomas Aquinas is also noted, especially in the doctrine of love [54] .
Influence of Crescas
Crescas's activities in the history of Judaism |
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couples tannai Amora Savora gaons rishonim acharonymus |
Kresskas did not leave a collection of respons or other works on halakha (Jewish jurisprudence), although his decisions are repeatedly cited by well-known halachic authorities Yosef ibn Habib (the book "Nimukey Yosef") and Yitzhak bin Sheshet (RIVASH) Perfet [P 1] [P 2] [7] [8] . Kreskas had the greatest influence on his closest students, the most famous of which was Yosef Albo [13] . Crescas had a noticeable influence on Spinoza, who read Crescas in the original [83] and retold the metaphysical proof of God's Being according to Crescas [84] in the Letter to Infinity. In many ways, Kreskas anticipated criticism from Spinoza Aristotle, and perhaps contributed to its emergence. In addition, Kreskas, describing the empty space that permeates all bodies, metaphorically compares him to God, and, according to some researchers, this is the first step to Spinoza's system, in which God, also a substance, has an attribute of extension. This is essentially a Crasskow's comparison, understood literally [85] .
Gianfranchesko Pico della Mirandola (nephew of the famous Renaissance humanist Pico della Mirandola) retold Crescas in the book “ Lat. Examen vanitatis doctrinæ gentium ”, although how he examined his books is unknown [16] [86] . Harry A. Wolfson believes that the echoes of criticism of Aristotle by Kreskas are felt by another Italian, Giordano Bruno [87] . Shlomo Pines , a well-known researcher of the history of philosophy and the author of the classical translation of the Maimonid's Guide to English, undoubtedly believed that Kresskas was one of those thinkers who led to the fall of Aristotelianism in Europe [88] .
The direct literary influence of Kreskas and his teachings on divine love is felt in the “Dialogues on Love” by Leone Ebreau [89] , who extended the teachings on love from Klaskas and on the relationship between a man and a woman [90] .
The influence of Kreskas is felt in the further development of the theory of the Sefirot of such a Kabbalist as Meir ibn Gabbai [47] .
Moses Mendelssohn , founder of the Haskala movement, mentions Crescas in the book "Jerusalem" as a great religious philosopher, who showed that the commandments regulate only actions [44] .
Among the opponents of Kreskas, it is worth noting the well-known followers of Maimonides, commentators of the “Guide of the Perplexed” Abrabanel and Shem Tov Ben Yosef Ibn Shem Tov , as well as Shimon ben Tsemah Dura (RASHBATS) . Their objections were exclusively respectful [6] [91] .
As a political leader, Crescas is highly regarded by both historians and folklore. They even told legends about him that he caused rain with his prayer. The praise of Kreskas is contained in Rabbi Yosef ben Jaavec’s anti-philosophical book “The Light of Life” [K 8] , and Rabbi Profit ben Durán (known by the pseudonym “Efodi”) dedicated Kreskas his book “The Shame of the Nations” [6] .
Recently, there has been an increasing interest in the teachings of Crescas [36] . In 1920, the first monograph in English by M. Waxman about Crescas [92] was published, stating that Crescas was not inferior to Maimonides in terms of the power and depth of analysis, then the fundamental study of Harry Wolfson [93] , where it says that Kresskas formulated a new worldview. In the four volumes of the “Pillars of Jewish Thought” Urbach Kreskas is given the whole volume [94] , it says that Crescas's philosophy is the most mature fruit of Jewish medieval thought. In 1971, the famous professor Eliezer Schwaid in the preface to the photographic reproduction of the first printed publication “The Light of the Lord” states that “Kreskas, as a philosopher, represents an original and large figure, not inferior to Maimonides, but even superior to him in courage and novelty of criticism” [95] . Professor Zvi Langerman quotes and supports "the long-established view that the criticism of Aristotelianism at Crescas was a turning point in the history of science" [96] .
On January 10–11, 2011, a conference was held at the Zalman Shazar Jewish History Research Center in Jerusalem on the topic: “Rabbi Hasday Kreskas - a philosopher and a leader” [97] . After the conference ended on January 12, 2011 in Jerusalem, the Hasday Kreskas Street [98] was inaugurated; in Tel Aviv, such a street was previously [99] [K 9] .
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Kresskas Hasdai - Article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia
- ↑ 1 2 Yitzhak Heineman. The meaning of the commandments. Chapter "Rabbi Hasdai Krecask", 1995 , p. 117.
- ↑ 1 2 3 WZ Harvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Epiloque.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , p. 54.
- ↑ 1 2 Max Jammer. Space Concepts = Concepts of Space. - 3. - NY: Dover Publications, 1994 .-- S. 74.76-81.84.88-90. - 261 s. - ISBN 978-0486271194 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Edited by Dr. Mordecai Margoliota. Encyclopedia of the great wise men of Israel (Biographical dictionary) = Heb. אנציקלופדיה לתולדות גדולי ישראל , Heb. Encyclopediya letoldot gdolei Israel . - Tel Aviv: Yavne, 1973.- T. 2 .-- S. 549-558.
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 6, p. 115
- ↑ 1 2 Dr. Manuel Joël. Religious and philosophical doctrine of Don Hasdai Kreskas = him. Don Chasdai Creskas' Religionsphilosophische Lehren . - Breslau: Schletter'sche Buchhandlung, 1866. - p. 78. - 83 p.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , pp. 16-17.
- ↑ 1 2 Dr. Jaume Riera i Sans
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 1 "Before 1391."
- ↑ Oxford companion to philosophy. "Hasdai ibn Crescas" . The appeal date is January 28, 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Heb. אנציקלופדיה יהודית (Da'at. Jewish Internet Encyclopedia)
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , p. 31.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , p. 26
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 WZHarvey, 1998 , pp. XI-XIV.
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 2 "1391".
- ↑ 1 2 3 Kreskas, Hasdai ben Abraham Archived copy of December 26, 2013 on the Wayback Machine in the Jewish Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia
- ↑ Zaragoza - article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 3 "After 1391".
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey, 1998 , page 24, note 74.
- ↑ Encyclopaedia Judaica (Germany) in the Jewish Virtual Library. CRESCAS (or Cresques), ḤASDAI BEN JUDAH (English) . Date of treatment January 29, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 13. "No commandment to believe."
- ↑ CRESCAS, ḤASDAI BEN ABRAHAM in JewishEncyclopedia.com
- ↑ King's Parade Jewish Legend (English) . Date of treatment February 3, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ This Month in Jewish History Shvat (Jan. - Feb. ) . Date of treatment February 3, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ Asunci ”n Blasco Martõnez. Los judíos de zaragoza en los siglos xiii-xiv . - T. 1 . - S. 209-221 . Archived May 19, 2012.
- ↑ Map showing the exact location of Veronica Street
- ↑ Hereinafter, the phonetic transliteration of Hebrew words in Latin letters is used, see, for example, Tsvi Sadan, Senior Lecturer, Department of Hebrew and Semitic Languages, Bar-Ilan University. Writing System of Modern Hebrew (English) . Date of treatment October 31, 2010. Archived August 18, 2011.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , p. 31.
- ↑ Colette Sirat, 2003 , p. 528.
- ↑ Harry Austryn Wolfson. Crescas Studies = Studies in Crescas // Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. - 1933-1934. - T. 5 . - p . 155-175 .
- ↑ Hasdai Kreskas, foreword and notes by Yehuda Eisenberg. Chapters on the Creation of the World // Light of the Lord = Heb. ' אור ה (Or Hashem) / With a preface and notes. - Jerusalem: Heb. הצאות השכל (Hatsa'at Hashkel) , 1980-1981. - 47 s.
- ↑ Hasdai Kreskas, with notes p. Yitzhak Sheilat. Light of the Lord = Heb. ' אור ה (Or Hashem) / Text corrected by Rabbi Shlomo Fisher according to manuscripts and old editions. - Jerusalem: Heb. סיפרי רמות (Sifrei Ramot) , 5750 (1990). - 712 s. - ISBN 5-93273-101-X .
- ↑ Warren Zev Harvey (English) . Date of treatment January 28, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Aviezer Rawitzky. Easter sermon by Rabbi Hasdai Kreskas and the study of his philosophical teachings = דרשת הפסח לרבי חסדאי קרשקש ומחקרים במשנתו הפילוסופית. - Jerusalem: Publications of the Israeli Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1988 .-- S. 15-17. - 268 p. - ISBN 965-208-084-5 .
- ↑ Itzhak Heineman. The meaning of the commandments. Chapter “Rav Hassday Kreskas”, 1995 , p. 117.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Eliezer Schwaid. Introduction to the "Book of Fundamentals" by Rabbi Yosef Albo, 1993 , pp. 15-17.
- ↑ Itzhak Heineman. The meaning of the commandments. Chapter “Rav Hassdai Kreskas”, 1995 , pp. 107-111.
- ↑ Colette Sirat, 2003 , p. 538.
- ↑ Itzhak Heineman. The meaning of the commandments. Chapter “Rav Hassdai Kreskas”, 1995 , pp. 109-117.
- ↑ Chaim Chrysel. Speech at the Hasday Kreskas Conference in Jerusalem (Hebrew) . Date of treatment January 12, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 Colette Sirat, 2003 , pp. 522-545.
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 13. "No commandment to believe."
- ↑ 1 2 Shlomo Pines, 2009 , pp. 268-269.
- ↑ Shlomo Pines, 2009 , pp. 255-256.
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 7. "Is it possible to know God?"
- ↑ WZHarvey, 1998 , p. 65.
- ↑ Levi ben Gershom. 5 // War of the Lord = Heb. מלחמת השם (Milkhamot Adonai) . - Heb. ריווא דטרינטו , 1560. - T. 3:12. - 150 s.
- ↑ WZHarvey, 1998 , pp. 98-118.
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey, 1998 , pp. 117-118.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Shalom Rosenberg . Speech at the Hasday Kreskas Conference in Jerusalem (Hebrew) . Date of treatment January 12, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 3 WZHarvey, 1998 , pp. 137-149.
- ↑ 1 2 Shlomo Pines, 2009 , p. 274.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 13. "No commandment to believe."
- ↑ 1 2 WZHarvey, 1998 , Chapter 6.
- ↑ Edward Grant. Much Ado About Nothing = Much Ado about Nothing. - Cambridge, 1981.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , p. five.
- ↑ Shlomo Pines, 2009 , All article.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , chapter 6, p. 114
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , p. 125
- ↑ S.Feldman, 1967 , p. 127.
- ↑ Shlomo Pines, 2009 , pp. 249-250.
- ↑ 1 2 Nachum L. Rabinovitch. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas (1340-1410) on numerical infinities = Rabbi Hasdai Crescas (1340-1410) on Numerical Infinities // The History of Science Society Isis. - The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society, 1970. - Vol . 61 , No. 2 . - S. 224-230 .
- ↑ Hasdai Crescas. By Tony Lévy in "Non-Western Cultures"
- ↑ 1 2 Carlos Fraenkel. [www.brill.nl From the Pythagorean emptiness to God as the place of Peace at Crescas] (Eng.) = From the Pythagorean void to Crescas' God as the Place of the World // Zutot. - Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2008 .-- Vol. 5 , no. 1 . - P. 87-94 .
- ↑ Shlomo Pines, 2009 , p. 248.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , p. 199.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , pp. 58-59.
- ↑ WZHarvey, 1998 , Chapter 1.
- ↑ 1 2 HA Wolfson, 1929 , p. 120
- ↑ WZHarvey, 1998 , p. 94.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , page 6, note 18.
- ↑ WZHarvey, 1998 , pp. 13-18.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , 117, note 13.
- ↑ WZHarvey, 1998 , pp. 8-13.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , page 24, note 75.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , Chapter 6. Crescas and Nicole Oresme.
- ↑ Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem. System of the World. History of cosmological doctrines from Plato to Copernicus = Le Système du Monde. Histoire des Doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic. - 1913-1959. - Vol. 5. - p. 230-232.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , pp. 16-19.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , pp. 23–29.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , pp. 4-5.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , pp. 29-30.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , pp. 84-88.
- ↑ Carlos Fraenkel. Hassdai Crescas on God as the Place of the World and Spinoza's idea of God as an extended substance = Ḥasdai Crescas on God as the Place of the World and Spinoza's Notion of God as "Res Extensa" // Aleph. - 2009. - № 9.1 . - p . 77-111 .
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , p. 34
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , p. 35
- ↑ Heb. שלמה פינס (Shlomo Pines) . Between the thought of the people of Israel and the thought of the peoples of the world = Heb. בין מחשבת ישראל למחשבת העמים. מחקרים בתולדות הפיל וסופיה היהודית . - Mossad Bialik, 1977 .-- S. 197 .-- 357 p.
- ↑ WZ Harvey, 1998 , pp. 114-117.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , p. 102
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , pp. 32-33.
- ↑ Meir Waxman. The Philosophy of Don Hasdai Crescas. - 1st ed. - New York, 1920.
- ↑ HA Wolfson, 1929 , pp. 1-113.
- ↑ Simha Bunem Urbakh . Pillars of Jewish thought = עמודי המחשבה הישראלית. - Jerusalem: הוצאת ההסתדרות הציונית העולמית, 1992. - T. 3.
- ↑ WZHarvey. Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, 2010 , p. eleven.
- ↑ Langermann YT, 2007 , p. 7
- ↑ Hasday Kreskas Conference in honor of the 600th anniversary of the death (Hebrew) . Date of treatment October 18, 2010. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ בני משה. רחוב חדש בירושלים: רבי חסדאי קרשקש (Hebrew) . The appeal date is January 20, 2011.
- ↑ Tel Aviv Hebrew District שכונה גבולית ( Hebrew) . The date of circulation is February 16, 2011. Archived August 18, 2011.
Comments
- ↑ Professor Warren Harvey, in a private message, argues that the royal authority temporarily deprived a group of rabbis of freedom so that they could resolve some difficult legal matter, and this was not imprisonment.
- ↑ Israeli professor Yomtov Asis.
- ↑ It should be distinguished from Zerahiah Halevi from Gerona .
- ↑ In the commentary to the Talmud, the treatise Bava Batra, 23B Ibn Habib writes: "Such an incident arose in the court of my teacher, Rabbi Hasdai, may the Merciful keep him."
- ↑ The punishment of Adam for original sin, the atonement of Adam's sin, the Trinity , the incarnation of the Divine, the Immaculate Conception , transubstantiation , the baptism of water, the coming of the Messiah, the New Testament, demonology.
- ↑ In Jewish historiography, these events are called Heb. גזרות קנ"א .
- ↑ In the commentary to ( 1 Par. 16 ), the RALBAG lists the five foundations contained in the text: Providence, prophecy, creation, the joy of God, the power of God over all in the future.
- ↑ It should be distinguished from the writings of Chaim bin Atar of the same name.
- ↑ In both cities, the name of the philosopher contains numerous errors
Primary sources
- ↑ 1 2 RIVASH, 1547 , Responsy 269, 287, 290, 331, 372, 374, 376, 379, 380, 385, 387, 388, 394, 395, 447 and others.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 RIVASH, Collection of responsions (inaccessible link) (inaccessible link from 11-05-2013 [2277 days])
- ↑ RIVASH, 1547 , Responsa 269.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , volume 2, book 2.
- ↑ Babylonian Talmud, Ievamot, 103B
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 3, Chapter 1.
- ↑ RIVASH, 1547 , Responsa 157.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 2, Chapter 15.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 3, Chapter 6.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 3, Chapter 2.
- ↑ Heb. Maimonides. Mishne Torah. Knowledge Book. The laws of the foundations of the Torah. 2:10
- ↑ Talmud of Babylon, Tract Ketuvot, 31A
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 3, Chapter 5.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , volume 2, book 6, chapter 1-2.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , volume 5, book 2, chapter 1-6.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 2, Book 5, Chapter 3.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 2, Book 5, Chapter 5.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 2, Chapter 3.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 2, Chapter 1.
- ↑ Midrash Bereshit Slave 68: 9
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 1, Chapter 2.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 2, Chapter 11.
- ↑ 1 2 Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 1, Chapter 6.
- ↑ Or Hashem, 1990 , Volume 1, Book 1, Chapter 15.
- ↑ 1 2 Midrash Bereshit Raba, 3: 7
- ↑ Kuzari , 1:67
- ↑ Talmud of Babylon, Rosh Hashanah treatise, 31A
- ↑ Talmud of Babylon, Tractate Sangedrin, 31A
- ↑ Talmud of Babylon, a treatise of Avoda Zarah, 3B
- ↑ Talmud of Babylon, treatise Hagiga, 11B
Literature
- Hassday Kreskas, with notes p. Yitzhak Sheilat. Light of the Lord = Heb. ' אור ה (Or Hashem) / Text corrected by Rabbi Shlomo Fisher according to manuscripts and old editions. - Jerushalaim: Heb. סיפרי רמות (Sifrei Ramot) , 5750 (1990). - 712 s. - ISBN 5-93273-101-X . (Hebrew)
- Colette Sirat. The history of medieval Jewish philosophy. - 1st ed. - Jerusalem-M.: Gesharim-Bridges of Culture, 2003. - T. 1. - 712 p. - ISBN 5-93273-101-X .
- On the effect on Spinoza of Crescas, see, in particular, Wolfson H. The Philosophy of Spinoza. Cambridge, Mass .: Harvard University, 1948. R. 264-295; Waxman M. The Philosophy of Don Hasdai Crescas. New York, 1920.
- Nechipurenko V. N. Jewish Philosophy and Kabbalah: Sefer Yetzira; 32 Ways of Wisdom; Explanation of the ten Sephiroth of Rabbi Azriel of Gerona (new translations from Hebrew). - 1st ed. - Rostov n / a : Publishing house Yuzh. feder. University, 2007. - S. (Philosophy of Crescas - p. 173-221; Crescas and Spinoza - 222-251) ..
- Hassday Kreskas, translation into English: Daniel Lasker (Lasker Daniel J.). “ Heb. ביטול עקרי אמונת הנוצרים ", Eng. translation of " English. The Refutation of the Christian Principles. ". - 1st ed. - New York: SUNY Press, 1992. (English)
- Tony Lévy. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Article "Hasdai Crescas" . - 1st ed. - Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer-Verlag, 2008 .-- T. 1 .-- 712 p. - ISBN 978-1-4020-4425-0_8630. (eng.)
- Warren Zev Harvey . Physics and Metaphysics in Hasdai Crescas. Amsterdam Studies in Jewish Thought. - Amsterdam: JC Gieben, 1998. - T. 1. - 168 p. - ISBN 978-9050633475 . (eng.)
- Warren Zev Harvey . Rabbi Hasday Kreskas = רבי חסדאי קרשקש. - Jerusalem: Center for them. Zalman Shazar on Jewish History, 2010 .-- 183 p. - ISBN 978-965-227-271-3 . (Hebrew)
- Harry Austryn Wolfson. Crescas ' criticism of Aristotle: problems of Aristotelian physics in Jewish and Arabic thought = Crescas' Critique of Aristotle: Problems of Aristotle Physics in Jewish and Arabic philosophy. - 1929. - 113 s. - ISBN 0674175751 . (inaccessible link) (eng.)
- Harry Austryn Wolfson. Crescas On The Problem Of Divine Attributes = Crescas On The Problem Of Divine Attributes. - Nabu Press, 2010 .-- 108 p. - ISBN 1146116780 . (eng.)
- Yitzhak Heineman. Translation from Hebrew: I. Veksler, L. Kitrossky. The meaning of the commandments = Heb. טעמי מצוות (Ta'amei Mitzvot) . - Jerusalem: Haman, 1995. - p. 105-117. - 385 s.
- Eliezer Schwaid. Introduction to the "Book of Fundamentals" by Rabbi Yosef Albo . - Jerusalem: Haman, 1993. - p. 15-17. - 268 s.
- Aviezer Ravitsky . Easter sermon by Rabbi Hasdai Kreskas and the study of his philosophical teachings = דרשת הפסח לרבי חסדאי קרשקש ומחקרים במשנתו הפילוסופית. - Jerusalem: Publications of the Israeli Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1988 .-- S. 15-17. - 268 s. - ISBN 965-208-084-5 . (Hebrew)
- Edited by Dr. Mordechai Margoliot. Encyclopedia of the great wise men of Israel (Biographical dictionary) = Heb. אנציקלופדיה לתולדות גדולי ישראל (Encyclopediya letoldot gdolei Israel) . - Tel Aviv: Yavne, 1973.- T. 2 .-- S. 549-558. (Hebrew)
- Dr. Manuel Joël. Religious and philosophical doctrine of Don Hasdai Kreskas = him. Don Chasdai Creskas' Religionsphilosophische Lehren . - Breslau: Schletter'sche Buchhandlung, 1866 .-- 83 p.
- Mauro Zonta. Two remarks on Jewish sources by Giovanni Picot and Giordano Bruno = Due note sulle fonti ebraiche di Giovanni Pico e Giordano // Rinascimento. - 2000. - V. 40 , № A.51, s.2 . - p . 143-156 . (ital.)
- Hassday Kreskas, foreword and notes by Yehuda Eisenberg. Chapters on the Creation of the World // Light of the Lord = Heb. ' אור ה (Or Hashem) / With a preface and notes. - Jerushalaim: Heb. הצאות השכל (Hatsa'at Hashkel) , 1980-1981. - 47 s. (Hebrew)
- Heb. ריב ש (RIVASH) . Responses compilation = Heb. שו ת . - Constantinople, 1547. - 606 p. (Hebrew)
- Shlomo Pines, translation from Hebrew by Sophia Kopelyan. Scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas, the teachings of Hasdai Kreskas and his predecessors // Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Paradigms of mutual influence = Heb. תומס אקוינס ומשנתם של חסדאי קרשקש ושל קודמיו (Tomas Avinas u-mishnatam shel Hasdai Crescas veshel kodmav) . - M .: Bridges of Culture, Gesharim, 2009. - p. 233-298. - 368 s. - ISBN 978-5-93273-297-0 .
- shotharibash05.pdf RIVASH, Collection of online responses (inaccessible link) (inaccessible link from 11-05-2013 [2277 days]) (Hebrew)
- Warren Zev Harvey. Nikolai Orezmsky and Hasdai Kreskas about the multiplicity of worlds = Nicole Oresme and Hasdai Crescas on Many Worlds // Studies in the History of Culture and Science. - Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2011. - T. 30 . - p . 347-360 . - ISBN 978 90 04 19 123 5 . - ISSN 1568-5004 . (eng.)
- Feldman, Seymur. The proof of Gersonid that the world was created (Eng.) = Gersonides' Proofs for the Creation of the Universe // Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. - American Academy for Jewish Research, 1967. - Vol. 35 - P. 113-137 . - ISSN 1538-4586 . (eng.)
- Y. Tzvi Langermann. New Dictionary of Scientific Biographies = New Dictionary of Scientific Biography / Koertge, Noretta. - New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2007 .-- V. 5 .-- S. 5-9. - ISBN 0684313200 . (eng.)
Links
- Kreskas Hasdai - Article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia
- Zaragoza - Article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia
- Kreskas, Hasdai ben-Abraham // The Brockhaus and Efron Jewish Encyclopedia . - SPb. 1908-1913.
- Hasdai Crescas in “New World Encyclopedia”
- CRESCAS, ḤASDAI BEN ABRAHAM in JewishEncyclopedia.com
- HA Davidson, Crescas, Hasdai. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008 (English)
Hebrew references
- אור השם הוצאת הרב למה ישר ("Light of God") (Hebrew)
- יסודות בתורת ההכרה ל רבי חסדאי קרשקש (Fundamentals of the theory of knowledge from Crescas) (Hebrew)
- ביטול עיקרי דת הנוצרים ("Denial of the foundations of the Christian faith") (Hebrew)
- הרשות נתונה - פרקי ידיעה ובחירה מתוך אור השם (Chapters on predestination and free will) (Hebrew)
- סוד הקדיש / טקסט קבלי שיוחס לרבי חסדאי קרשקש באתר דעת (“The Secret of Kaddish. Kabbalistic Texts Attributed to Kreskas) (Hebrew)