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Losev, Oleg Vladimirovich

Oleg Vladimirovich Losev ( April 27 ( May 10 ) 1903 , Tver - January 22, 1942 , Leningrad ) - Soviet physicist and inventor (15 patents and copyright certificates), candidate of physical and mathematical sciences ( 1938 ; for research on electroluminescence , without defending a dissertation ). Gained fame for the invention of a generating crystal detector. The author of the first scientific papers describing the processes occurring in the surface layers of a semiconductor. He made a great contribution to the study of electroluminescence in solid semiconductors.

Losev Oleg Vladimirovich
Oleg losev.jpg
Date of Birth
Place of BirthTver , Russian Empire
Date of death
A place of deathLeningrad , USSR
A country
Scientific fieldphysics , radio engineering
Place of workNizhny Novgorod Radio Laboratory named after V.I. Lenin, Central Radio Laboratory, Assistant of the Department of Medical Biophysics 1 LMI
Academic degreecandidate of physical and mathematical sciences
Known asinventor of cristadine
SignatureSignature

Content

Childhood and Youth

O. V. Losev was born on April 27, 1903 in Tver. Losev's father is an office clerk of the Verkhnevolzhsky Railway Materials Plant (currently the Tver Carriage Works ), a former headquarters captain of the tsarist army, a nobleman [2] . Mother was engaged in housekeeping and raising her son [3] .

As a student of the second-level school, Losev in 1917 falls on a public lecture by the head of the Tver radio station, V. M. Leshchinsky , on the achievements in radio engineering. The lecture made a great impression on the young man; he became even more interested in radio engineering [4] .

The dream of receiving radio leads Losev to the Tver radio station, where he gets to know V.M. Leshchinsky (who later became his leader), and then M.A. Bonch-Bruevich and professor at the Riga Polytechnic V.K. Lebedinsky [5] .

Work in the Nizhny Novgorod radio laboratory

 
Scheme of Losev's first experiments with a crystal detector [6]

In 1920, Losev came to Moscow to enter the Moscow Institute of Communications. After meeting with his friends from the Tver radio station at the first Russian Radio Engineering Congress in Moscow in September, the young man decides to leave his studies at the institute and go to work in the Nizhny Novgorod Laboratory named after V.I. Lenin , where the radio laboratory staff was transferred to work in mid-August 1918 at Tver radio station.

In Nizhny Novgorod, Losev tried to get a job, but due to the lack of vacancies, he was able to get a job as a delivery man only. A scientific career in the NRL began for Losev only a few months later, when he became a junior research fellow.

Unsuccessful experiments at the end of 1921 with local oscillators using an electric arc draw the attention of a scientist to crystal detectors - it seemed to him that the detector contact is an even more miniature electric arc [7] . Having received leave at the end of 1921, Losev left for Tver, where he continued to study crystals in his home laboratory [8] [9] . Using a zincite crystal (ZnO) and a carbon filament as an electrode, Losev assembled a detector receiver and on January 12, 1922 he first heard the work of undamped stations [7] . A distinctive feature of the receiver was the possibility of applying bias to the crystal using three batteries from a flashlight (12 volts) [10] . The sensitivity of the designed receiver was at the level of the regenerative radio receiver that Losev had.

Studying the characteristics of zincite- based detectors during the generation of undamped oscillations, Losev studied the conditions under which the detector amplified the signal. The results of this work were presented by him on March 9, 1922 in a laboratory conversation in a report on the topic "Detector-Generator" [11] .

Key points of the report:

  • The current-voltage characteristic of the generating points of the crystal has a negative region.
  • The detector can be an amplifier only on the negative portion of the current-voltage characteristic.

Achieving the stability of the detectors, he experiments with various materials of the crystal of the detector and wire. It turns out that zincite crystals made by melting by an electric arc are best suited for generation, and coal is the best wire material. Losev also conducted studies of the electrical conductivity of the form and processing of individual crystals. He developed methods for studying the surface of crystals using sharp probes to detect places of pn junctions [12] . The advanced receiver managed to get 15x gain.

After the visit of German radio engineers in December 1923 to the NRL, Losev’s works were introduced abroad. There, Losev’s regenerative receiver was given the name "Cristadine" (it was coined in France [10] ), which later became generally accepted in the USSR. A patent for the name "Kristadin" is granted to Radio News. Losev did not patent the receiver he invented, he received several patents for the method of manufacturing the detector and methods for its use [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] .

Further improvement of cristadine could be continued only after a physical explanation of the observed phenomena [18] . In 1924, physics of semiconductors and band theory did not yet exist, the only two-terminal network that had a negative resistance section was a voltaic arc . Trying to see an electric arc under a microscope, Losev discovered the phenomenon of electroluminescence [19] . The scientist correctly determined the nature of the glow that occurs in the carborundum crystal. In his article, he wrote [20] :

Most likely, the crystal glows from electronic bombardment similarly to the glow of various minerals in crook tubes ...

He also noted that the glow he discovered was different from the nature of the voltaic arc [21] :

The discharges by which the generating points act are not volt arcs in the literal sense, that is, they do not have glowing electrodes

.

In his experiments, Losev showed that the luminescence can be modulated with a frequency of not less than 78.5 kHz (the limiting frequency of a measurement setup based on rotating mirrors). The high frequency of luminescence modulation became a practical justification for continuing research work in the NRL, and then in the CRL for the development of electronic light generators [22] .

He could not study the crystal radiation (intensity, spectrum) in more detail, since the laboratory did not have the necessary instruments [23] .

Research topics were also determined by the work of the NRL in the development of radio receivers. Continuing to study cristadins, the scientist explores parasitic generation in receivers and discovers the phenomenon of transgeneration [24] . Investigating transgeneration with the help of tube circuits, Losev discovers a transformation (decrease) in frequency. On a method of frequency transformation, he received an author's certificate [25] .

Further research Losev conducted again with crystal detectors. Studying the glow that occurs in crystals, he distinguishes two types of glow, which he writes about in his article [26] :

From many observations it turned out that it is possible to distinguish (more or less artificially) two types of luminescence of carborundum contact.

Glow I (prebreakdown glow in modern terminology) and Glow II (injection luminescence) [27] in 1944 were rediscovered by French scientist J. Destrio [28] .

Work at the Central Radio

 
Employees of the vacuum physical-technical laboratory of the central laboratory (1930) In the second row from left to right: D. E. Malyarov, N. V. Nefedyeva, B. A. Ostroumov, V. N. Lepeshinskaya, S. I. Bogomolov, E. G. Koenig. In the fourth row, third from the left O. V. Losev [29]
 
Scheme for observing conductivity changes in the active layer. Four electrodes are placed on a silicon carbide crystal [30]

On June 27, 1928, VSHN Order No. 804 was issued, according to which the Nizhny Novgorod radio laboratory was transferred to the Central Radio Laboratory of the trust of low-current factories. NRL employees were invited to move to Leningrad or to switch to another job [31] .

Losev moved to Leningrad with his colleagues [32] , a new place of his work - a vacuum physical-technical laboratory in the TsRL building on Kamenny Island. The subject of his work is the study of semiconductor crystals [33] . Losev conducts part of the experiments in the laboratories of the Physicotechnical Institute with the permission of A. F. Ioffe [34] .

In experiments, he was most interested in the interaction between the electromagnetic field and the substance, he tried to trace the reverse effect of the electromagnetic field on the substance. Oleg Vladimirovich said:

there are phenomena where the substance makes significant changes to the electromagnetic field, and there is no trace left on it itself - such are the phenomena of refraction, dispersion, rotation of the plane of polarization, etc. Perhaps there is reciprocity of phenomena, but we do not know how to observe it [35] .

By illuminating the active layer of the carborundum crystal, Losev registered photo-emfs up to 3.4V. Studying photoelectric phenomena in crystals, Losev experimented with more than 90 substances [36] .

During the next experiment aimed at studying the changes in the conductivity of the crystal detector, Losev was close to opening the transistor, however, due to the choice of silicon carbide crystals for experiments, it was not possible to obtain sufficient amplification [37] .

Due to the fact that the subject of his research began to differ from the subject of research in the laboratory, Losev faced a choice - either to engage in research on laboratory topics, or to leave the institute. He chooses the second option [38] . Another version of the reason for switching to another job is the reorganization of the laboratory and the conflict with the bosses [39] .

Work at the 1st Leningrad Medical Institute. Academician I.P. Pavlov

In 1937, Losev got a teaching job at the 1st Leningrad Medical Institute. Academician I.P. Pavlov [38] . At the insistence of his friends, he prepared and submitted to the council of the Leningrad Industrial Institute (now St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University ) a list of documents for awarding a degree (21 articles and 12 copyright certificates). On June 25, 1938, A.F. Ioffe presented the work submitted by Losev to the Scientific Council at a meeting of the Institute of Physics and Engineering of the Institute. According to the results of the conclusion of the Faculty of Engineering and Physics on July 2, 1938, the Scientific Council of the Industrial Institute awarded O. V. Losev the degree of candidate of physical and mathematical sciences [38] . His last work was the development of a device for searching for metal objects in wounds [32] .

The results of Losev’s research were published in the journals Telegraphy and Telephony Wirelessly [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [24] [51] [52] [53] , β€œBulletin of Electrical Engineering” [54] , β€œReports of the USSR Academy of Sciences” [55] [56] , β€œZhTF” [57] and a number of other periodicals [58] [59] .

Death

Losev did not follow the advice of A. F. Ioffe to evacuate [10] . He died of starvation during the siege of Leningrad in 1942 in the hospital of the First Leningrad Medical Institute [60] . The burial place is unknown. Some authors believe that the leadership of the Industrial Institute and personally A.F. Ioffe, who distributed the rations [61] [62], are to blame for the death of Losev.

Assessment of the Scientific Contribution of O. V. Losev

The most complete description of the biography of O. V. Losev was made by G. A. Ostroumov , who personally knew him and worked with him [63] . G. A. Ostroumov published the results of his work in the form of a bibliographic essay [64] .

In foreign literature, the scientific activities of Losev are discussed in detail in the book of Ebon Lobner Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diode. The book was published in 1976, the material for the author was the information provided by Professor B. A. Ostroumov , as well as the works of G. A. Ostroumov [65] . On the β€œtree of development of electronic devices” compiled by I. Lobner, Losev is the ancestor of three types of semiconductor devices (ZnO amplifier, ZnO generator and SiC- based LEDs ) [66] .

The importance of Losev's discoveries and research was emphasized in both domestic and foreign publications.

Radio News Magazine, September 1924 [67] :

We are happy to offer our readers an invention that opens a new era in radio business and which will gain great importance in the coming years. The young Russian engineer O. V. Losev gave the world this invention without even taking a patent on it. Now the detector can play the same role as the cathode lamp.

The book "Semiconductors in modern physics" by A. F. Ioffe [68] [69] :

O. V. Losev discovered the peculiar properties of the barrier layers in semiconductors - the luminescence of the layers during the passage of current and the amplifying effects in them. However, these and other studies did not attract much attention and did not find significant technical solutions until Grondahl built (in 1926) a technical AC rectifier from copper oxide.

Peculiar phenomena occurring at the boundary of hole and electron carborundum (including luminescence during the passage of current), O.V. Losev discovered and studied in detail as early as the 1920s, that is, long before the advent of modern theories of rectification.

The book "The First Years of Soviet Radio Engineering and Amateur Radio" [70] :

January 1922. Radio amateur O. V. Losev discovered the property of a crystal detector to generate. Its detector amplifier (cristadine) served as the basis for modern crystalline triodes.

Memory

In June 2006, the publishing house of the Nizhny Novgorod University. N. I. Lobachevsky published a collection of articles β€œAhead of Time”, dedicated to the biography and scientific heritage of Losev [71] .

In October 2012, as part of the 11th festival β€œContemporary Art in a Traditional Museum”, the project β€œThe Light of Losev” by Yuri Shevnin was implemented at the Central Museum of Communications named after A. Popov ( St. Petersburg ) [72] . At the booth, along with the historical background of the inventor, a portrait of Losev was presented, made using LED strip in different colors and sizes.

The Nizhny Novgorod branch of the Union of Radio Amateurs of Russia established the diploma β€œO. V. Losev - a scientist ahead of time! ” [73] .

In 2014, by a resolution of the administration of the city of Tver, on the basis of decisions of the Tver City Duma, the park in the Central District of the city was named after O. V. Losev [74] .

Literature

  • About magnetic amplifiers // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1922. - No. 11 . - S. 131-133 .
  • Detector generator; detector-amplifier // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1922. - No. 14 . - S. 374-386 .
  • Crystal generating points // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1922. - No. 15 . - S. 564-569 .
  • Action contact detectors; the effect of temperature on the generating contact // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1923. - No. 18 . - S. 45–62 .
  • Detector local oscillator and amplifier // Communication technology. - 1923. - No. 4,5 . - S. 56-58 (in more detail [3-4]) .
  • Getting short waves from a generating contact detector // Telegraphy and Telephony Wirelessly. - 1923. - No. 21 . - S. 349-352 .
  • Nizhny Novgorod hams and detector-generator // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1923. - No. 22 . - S. 482-483 .
  • A method for quickly finding generating points at a local oscillator detector // Telegraphy and Telephony Wirelessly. - 1923. - No. 22 . - S. 506-507 .
  • Scheme of a detector receiver-local oscillator with one detector // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1923. - No. 22 . - S. 507-508 .
  • A new method of degassing cathode lamps // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1923. - No. 23 . - S. 93 .
  • The amateur building of a single-detector receiver-local oscillator // Telegraphy and Telephony Wirelessly. - 1924. - No. 24 . - S. 206-210 .
  • Further research of processes in generating contact // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1924. - No. 26 . - S. 404-411 .
  • Kristadin. / V.K. Lebedinsky. - Nizhny Novgorod: NRL, 1924. - (Radio amateur library. Issue 4.).
  • Transgeneration // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1926. - No. 5 (38) . - S. 436-448 .
  • On the β€œNetompson” oscillations // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1927. - No. 4 (43) . - S. 449–451 .
  • Luminous carborundum detector and detection with crystals // Telegraphy and telephony without wires. - 1927. - No. 5 (44) . - S. 485-494 .
  • The effect of temperature on the luminous carborundum contact: On the application of the quantum theory equation to the phenomenon of detector luminosity // Telegraphy and Telephony Wirelessly. - 1929. - No. 2 (53) . - S. 153β€”161 .
  • On the application of quantum theory to the phenomena of the detector’s glow. - Sat Physics and production. - Leningrad: LPI, 1929. - S. 43–46.
  • Glow II: electrical conductivity of carborundum and unipolar conductivity of detectors // Bulletin of Electrical Engineering. - 1931. - No. 8 . - S. 247-255 .
  • Photoelectric effect in any active layer of carborundum // ZhTF T.1. - 1931. - No. 7 . - S. 718-724 .
  • About photoactive and detecting layers in carborundum crystals and crystals of some other semiconductors // Radio and low current technology. - 1932. - No. 2 . - S. 121-139 .
  • Photocells similar to selenium, capacitive effect, inertia study // Technical report for 6059 along 1933. TsRL library. Central Museum of Communications named after A.S. Popova .. - 1933.
  • Capacitive type photoelectric effect of silicon resistances // Bulletin of the electrical industry. - 1935. - No. 3 . - S. 38-40 .
  • Spectral determination of the valve photoelectric effect in single crystals of carborundum // Doklady AN SSSR. 1940. T. 29. - 1940. - T. 29 , No. 5-6 . - S. 363-364 .
  • A new spectral effect with a valve photoelectric effect in carborundum single crystals and a new method for determining the red border of a valve photoelectric effect // Doklady AN SSSR. 1940. - 1940. - T. 29 , No. 5-6 . - S. 360-362 .
  • A new spectral effect and a method for determining the red border of a valve photoelectric effect in carborundum single crystals // Izvestiya AN SSSR. Ser. Physical .. - 1941. - No. 4-5 . - S. 494-499 .
  • Lossev O. = Oscillatory Crystals. - P. 93-96. - (Wireless World and Radio Review. V.15. No. 271).
  • Lossew O. = Der Kristadyn. - 1925. - P. 132-134. - (Zeitschr. F. Fernmeldetechnik).
  • Lossew O. = Oszillierende Krystalle. - No. 7. - u. GerΓ€tebau, 1926. - P. 97-100. - (Zeitschr. F. Fernmeldetechnik).
  • Lossew OV = Luminous carborundum detector and detection effect and oscillations with crystals. - V. 6. No. 39 .. - Phil.Mag .: u. GerΓ€tebau, 1928. - P. 1024-1044.
  • Lossew OW = Über die Anwendung der Quantentheorie zu Leuchterscheinungen am Karborundumdetektor. - Phys. Zeitschr. V. 30. No. 24. - 1928. - P. 920-923.
  • Lossew OW = Leuchten II des Karborundumdetectors. Elektrische LeitfΓ€higkeit des Karborundums und unipolare LeitfΓ€higkeit der Krystalldetectoren. - Phys. Zeitschr. V. 32. - 1931. - P. 692-696.
  • Lossew OW = Über den lichtelektrischen Effekt in besonderer aktiver Schicht der Karborundumkrystalle. - Phys. Zeitschr. V. 32. - 1933. - P. 397-403.
  • The Crystodyne Principle // Radio News. - 1924. - Issue. 9 . - S. 294-295, 431 .
  • A. G. Ostroumov, A. A. Rogachev ,. O. V. Losev - a pioneer of semiconductor electronics. - Physics: problems, history, people. - Leningrad: Nauka, 1986. - S. 183-217.
  • Novikov M.A. Oleg Vladimirovich Losev - pioneer of semiconductor electronics // Solid State Physics. - 2004 .-- T. 46 , no. 1 . - S. 5-9 . Archived on September 28, 2007.
  • Novikov M.A. Early sunrise. On the centenary of the birth of O. V. Losev // Nizhny Novgorod Museum. - 2003. - No. 1 . - S. 14-17 . (inaccessible link)
  • Gureeva O. Transistor story. // Components and automation "Fine Street" St. Petersburg. - 2006. - No. 9 . - S. 198-206 .
  • M.Ya. Moshonkin. Crystal Detectors in the Use of Amateur Radio / Ed. Baranova S. - Leningrad: Scientific Book Publishing, 1928. - 48 p. - (Library magazine "in the workshop of nature"). - 5,000 copies.
  • Petsko A. A. Great Russian achievements. World priorities of the Russian people . - Institute of Russian Civilization, 2012. - S. 277β€”278. - 560 s.
  • Fedorov B. Losev // newspaper "Duel". - 2004. - Vol. No. 41 (389) .
  • Americans about the Russian invention // Radio amateur. - 1924. - Issue. No. 2 . - S. 22 . Archived on February 9, 2014.
  • Ioffe A.F. Semiconductors in modern physics. - Moscow-Leningrad: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1954.- 356 p.
  • Strongin R. G. Ahead of Time: A collection of articles dedicated to the 100th birthday of OV V. Losev / Federal Agency for Education, Nizhny Novgorod. state un-t them. N. N. Lobachevsky. - N. Novgorod: Type. Nizhny Novgorod. State University, 2006. - 431 p.
  • Ostroumov G.A. Oleg Vladimirovich Losev: Bibliographic sketch. - At the origins of semiconductor technology. - L: Science, 1972.
  • Ostroumov B., Schlachter I. Inventor of cristadin O. V. Losev // Radio. - 1952. - Issue. No. 5 . - S. 18-20 .
  • Lbov F. At the origins of semiconductor technology // Radio. - 1973. - Issue. No. 5 . - S. 10 .
  • Central Radio Laboratory in Leningrad / Ed. I.V. Breneva. - M: Owls Radio, 1973.
  • IN AND. Shamshur. The first years of Soviet radio engineering and amateur radio. - Massive radio library. Issue 213. - M.-L.: Gosenergoizdat, 1954. - 20,000 copies.
  • Egon E. Loebner. Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diodes. - IEEE Transaction Electron Devices. - 1976. - Vol. ED-23, No. 7, July.

Patents and copyright certificates

  • Patent No. 467, application No. 77734 from 18-12, 1923. Detector radio receiver-local oscillator, publ. 31-7-1925 (issue 16, 1925).
  • Patent No. 472, application No. 77717 from 18-12-1923. A device for finding the generating points of a contact detector, publ. 31-7-1925, (issue 16, 1925).
  • Patent No. 496, application No. 76844, from 11-6-1923. A method of manufacturing a zincite detector, publ. 31-7-1925 (issue 16, 1925).
  • Patent No. 996, application No. 75317 from 21-2-1922. The method of generating undamped oscillations, publ. 27-2-1926 (issue 8, 1926).
  • Patent No. 3773, application No. 7413 from 29-3-1926. Detector radio-local oscillator, publ. 31-10-1927 (issue 6, 1928)
  • Add. Patent 3773 (USSR). The method of radio reception on the frame. - Application from 29-3-26 (To the patent: Detector radio receiver-local oscillator).
  • Patent No. 4904, application No. 7551 from 29-3-1926. A method of regulating regeneration in cristadine receivers, publ. 31–3-1928 (issue 17, 1928).
  • Patent No. 6068, application No. 10134 from 20-8-1926. A method of interrupting the fundamental frequency of a cathode generator, published on 31-8-1928 (issue 1.1929).
  • Patent No. 11101, application No. 14607 from 28-2-1927. A way to prevent the occurrence of electrical oscillations in the receiving circuits of low-frequency inter-tube transformers, publ. 30-9-1929 (issue 52, 1930).
  • Patent No. 12191, application No. 14672 from 28-2-1927. Light relay, publ. 31-12-1929 (issue 3, 1930).
  • Copyright. testimonial. No. 28548, application No. 79 507 from 27-11-1930. Electrolytic rectifier, publ. 12/31/1932.
  • Copyright. testimonial. No. 25675, application No. 84078 from 26-2-1931. Light relay, publ. 31-3-1932.
  • Copyright. testimonial. No. 29875, application No. 7316 from 9-10-1926. The method of frequency transformation, publ. 30-4-1933.
  • Copyright. testimonial. No. 32067, application No. 128360, from 8-5-1933. A method of manufacturing a photoresistance, publ. 30-9-1933.
  • Copyright. testimonial. No. 33231, application No. 87650 from 29-4-1931. Contact rectifier, publ. 30-11-1933.
  • Copyright. testimonial. No. 39883, application No. 140876 from 21-1-1934. A method of manufacturing photoresistance publ. 30-11-1934.

Notes

  1. ↑ Losev Oleg Vladimirovich // Great Soviet Encyclopedia : [in 30 vol.] / Ed. A. M. Prokhorov - 3rd ed. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1969.
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  2. ↑ Oleg Vladimirovich Losev - pioneer of semiconductor electronics, 2004 , p. 5.
  3. ↑ Early Sunrise. On the centenary of the birth of O. V. Losev, 2003 , p. 14-17.
  4. ↑ O.V. Losev - pioneer of semiconductor electronics, 1986 , p. 186.
  5. ↑ At the origins of semiconductor technology, 1973 , p. 10.
  6. ↑ Inventor of cristadin O.V. Losev, 1952 , p. 19.
  7. ↑ 1 2 Crystal detectors in everyday life of a radio amateur, 1928 , p. 44.
  8. ↑ The first years of Soviet radio engineering and amateur radio, 1954 , p. 98.
  9. ↑ O.V. Losev - pioneer of semiconductor electronics, 1986 , p. 188.
  10. ↑ 1 2 3 Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diodes, 1976 , p. 677.
  11. ↑ O.V. Losev - pioneer of semiconductor electronics, 1986 , p. 189-190.
  12. ↑ Central Radio Laboratory in Leningrad, 1973 , p. 216.
  13. ↑ Patent No. 467, application No. 77734 from 18-12, 1923. Detector radio receiver-local oscillator, publ. 31-7-1925 (issue 16, 1925).
  14. ↑ Patent No. 472, application No. 77717 from 18-12-1923. A device for finding the generating points of a contact detector, publ. 31-7-1925, (issue 16, 1925).
  15. ↑ Patent No. 496, application No. 76844, from 11-6-1923. A method of manufacturing a zincite detector, publ. 31-7-1925 (issue 16, 1925).
  16. ↑ Patent No. 996, application No. 75317 from 21-2-1922. The method of generating undamped oscillations, publ. 27-2-1926 (issue 8, 1926).
  17. ↑ Patent No. 3773, Application No. 7413 dated 29-3-1926. Detector radio-local oscillator, publ. 31-10-1927 (issue 6, 1928)
  18. ↑ O.V. Losev - pioneer of semiconductor electronics, 1986 , p. 195.
  19. ↑ At the origins of semiconductor technology, 1973 , p. 19-20.
  20. ↑ Further study of processes in generating contact, 1924 , p. 409.
  21. ↑ Action of contact detectors; the effect of temperature on the generating contact, 1923 , p. 61.
  22. ↑ Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diodes, 1976 , p. 678
  23. ↑ О. Π’. ЛосСв - ΠΏΠΈΠΎΠ½Π΅Ρ€ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ элСктроники, 1986 , с. 198.
  24. ↑ 1 2 ВрансгСнСрация, 1926 , с. 436β€”448.
  25. ↑ Авторск. свид. β„– 29875, заявка β„– 7316 ΠΎΡ‚ 9-10-1926. Бпособ трансформации частоты, ΠΎΠΏΡƒΠ±Π».30-4-1933
  26. ↑ БвСтящийся ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹ΠΉ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ ΠΈ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ с кристаллами, 1927 , с. 485.
  27. ↑ О. Π’. ЛосСв - ΠΏΠΈΠΎΠ½Π΅Ρ€ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ элСктроники, 1986 , с. 205.
  28. ↑ Π˜Π·ΠΎΠ±Ρ€Π΅Ρ‚Π°Ρ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒ кристадина О. Π’. ЛосСв, 1952 , с. 20.
  29. ↑ Π¦Π΅Π½Ρ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Π°Ρ радиолаборатория Π² Π›Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ½Π³Ρ€Π°Π΄Π΅, 1973 , с. 213.
  30. ↑ Π‘Π²Π΅Ρ‡Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ II: ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΊΡ‚Ρ€ΠΎΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄Π° ΠΈ униполярная ΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠ², 1931 .
  31. ↑ Π¦Π΅Π½Ρ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Π°Ρ радиолаборатория Π² Π›Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ½Π³Ρ€Π°Π΄Π΅, 1973 , с. 62.
  32. ↑ 1 2 ΠŸΠ΅Ρ€Π²Ρ‹Π΅ Π³ΠΎΠ΄Ρ‹ совСтской Ρ€Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΎΡ‚Π΅Ρ…Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΈ Ρ€Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΡŽΠ±ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΡΡ‚Π²Π°, 1954 , с. 103.
  33. ↑ Π¦Π΅Π½Ρ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Π°Ρ радиолаборатория Π² Π›Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ½Π³Ρ€Π°Π΄Π΅, 1973 , с. 214.
  34. ↑ ОлСг Π’Π»Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΌΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΈΡ‡ ЛосСв: БиблиографичСский ΠΎΡ‡Π΅Ρ€ΠΊ, 1972 .
  35. ↑ Π¦Π΅Π½Ρ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Π°Ρ радиолаборатория Π² Π›Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ½Π³Ρ€Π°Π΄Π΅, 1973 , с. 215.
  36. ↑ Вранзисторная история, 2006 , с. 198β€”206.
  37. ↑ О. Π’. ЛосСв - ΠΏΠΈΠΎΠ½Π΅Ρ€ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ элСктроники, 1986 , с. 212β€”213.
  38. ↑ 1 2 3 О. Π’. ЛосСв - ΠΏΠΈΠΎΠ½Π΅Ρ€ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ элСктроники, 1986 , с. 214.
  39. ↑ Вранзисторная история, 2006 .
  40. ↑ О ΠΌΠ°Π³Π½ΠΈΡ‚Π½Ρ‹Ρ… усилитСлях, 1922 , с. 131β€”133.
  41. ↑ Π”Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€-Π³Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€Π°Ρ‚ΠΎΡ€; Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€-ΡƒΡΠΈΠ»ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒ, 1922 , с. 374β€”386.
  42. ↑ Π“Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰ΠΈΠ΅ Ρ‚ΠΎΡ‡ΠΊΠΈ кристалла, 1922 , с. 564β€”569.
  43. ↑ ДСйствиС ΠΊΠΎΠ½Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΡ‚Π½Ρ‹Ρ… Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠ²; влияниС Ρ‚Π΅ΠΌΠΏΠ΅Ρ€Π°Ρ‚ΡƒΡ€Ρ‹ Π½Π° Π³Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰ΠΈΠΉ ΠΊΠΎΠ½Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΡ‚, 1923 , с. 45β€”62.
  44. ↑ ΠŸΠΎΠ»ΡƒΡ‡Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΊΠΎΡ€ΠΎΡ‚ΠΊΠΈΡ… Π²ΠΎΠ»Π½ ΠΎΡ‚ Π³Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΊΠΎΠ½Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΡ‚Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π°, 1923 , с. 349β€”352.
  45. ↑ НиТСгородскиС Ρ€Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΡŽΠ±ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΠΈ ΠΈ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€-Π³Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€Π°Ρ‚ΠΎΡ€, 1923 , с. 482β€”483.
  46. ↑ Бпособ быстрого нахоТдСния Π³Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰ΠΈΡ… Ρ‚ΠΎΡ‡Π΅ΠΊ Ρƒ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π°-Π³Π΅Ρ‚Π΅Ρ€ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ½Π°, 1923 , с. 506β€”507.
  47. ↑ Π‘Ρ…Π΅ΠΌΠ° Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΡ€ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌΠ½ΠΈΠΊΠ°-Π³Π΅Ρ‚Π΅Ρ€ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ½Π° с ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΌ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠΌ, 1923 , с. 507β€”508.
  48. ↑ Новый способ обСзгаТивания ΠΊΠ°Ρ‚ΠΎΠ΄Π½Ρ‹Ρ… Π»Π°ΠΌΠΏ, 1923 , с. 93.
  49. ↑ Π›ΡŽΠ±ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΡΠΊΠ°Ρ постройка ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎΠ΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΡ€ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌΠ½ΠΈΠΊΠ°-Π³Π΅Ρ‚Π΅Ρ€ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ½Π°, 1924 , с. 206β€”210.
  50. ↑ Π”Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Π΅ΠΉΡˆΠ΅Π΅ исслСдованиС процСссов Π² Π³Π΅Π½Π΅Ρ€ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰Π΅ΠΌ ΠΊΠΎΠ½Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΡ‚Π΅, 1924 , с. 404β€”411.
  51. ↑ О «нСтомпсоновских» колСбаниях, 1927 , с. 449β€”451.
  52. ↑ БвСтящийся ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹ΠΉ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ ΠΈ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ с кристаллами, 1927 , с. 485β€”494.
  53. ↑ ВлияниС Ρ‚Π΅ΠΌΠΏΠ΅Ρ€Π°Ρ‚ΡƒΡ€Ρ‹ Π½Π° свСтящийся ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹ΠΉ ΠΊΠΎΠ½Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΡ‚: О ΠΏΡ€ΠΈΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠΈ уравнСния Ρ‚Π΅ΠΎΡ€ΠΈΠΈ ΠΊΠ²Π°Π½Ρ‚ ΠΊ явлСнию свСчСния Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π°, 1929 , с. 153β€”161.
  54. ↑ Π‘Π²Π΅Ρ‡Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ II: ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΊΡ‚Ρ€ΠΎΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄Π° ΠΈ униполярная ΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Π΄Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠ², 1931 , с. 247β€”455.
  55. ↑ Π‘ΠΏΠ΅ΠΊΡ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π²Π΅Π½Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ фотоэффСкта Π² монокристаллах ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄Π°, 1940 , с. 363β€”364.
  56. ↑ Новый ΡΠΏΠ΅ΠΊΡ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Ρ‹ΠΉ эффСкт ΠΏΡ€ΠΈ Π²Π΅Π½Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠΌ фотоэлСктричСском эффСктС Π² монокристаллах ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄Π° ΠΈ Π½ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹ΠΉ ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚ΠΎΠ΄ опрСдСлСния красной Π³Ρ€Π°Π½ΠΈΡ†Ρ‹ Π²Π΅Π½Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ фотоэффСкта, 1940 , с. 360β€”362.
  57. ↑ ЀотоэлСктричСский эффСкт Π² любом Π°ΠΊΡ‚ΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎΠΌ слоС ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄Π°, 1931 , с. 718β€”724.
  58. ↑ Π”Π΅Ρ‚Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π½Ρ‹ΠΉ Π³Π΅Ρ‚Π΅Ρ€ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ½ ΠΈ ΡƒΡΠΈΠ»ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒ, 1923 , с. 56β€”58.
  59. ↑ Новый ΡΠΏΠ΅ΠΊΡ‚Ρ€Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½Ρ‹ΠΉ эффСкт ΠΈ ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚ΠΎΠ΄ опрСдСлСния красной Π³Ρ€Π°Π½ΠΈΡ†Ρ‹ Π²Π΅Π½Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ фотоэффСкта Π² монокристаллах ΠΊΠ°Ρ€Π±ΠΎΡ€ΡƒΠ½Π΄Π°, 1941 , с. 494β€”499.
  60. ↑ Π Π°Π½Π½ΠΈΠΉ восход. К ΡΡ‚ΠΎΠ»Π΅Ρ‚ΠΈΡŽ со дня роТдСния О. Π’. ЛосСва, 2003 .
  61. ↑ ЛосСв, 2004 .
  62. ↑ Π’Π΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΈΠ΅ русскиС достиТСния. ΠœΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹Π΅ ΠΏΡ€ΠΈΠΎΡ€ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Ρ‚Ρ‹ русского Π½Π°Ρ€ΠΎΠ΄Π°, 2012 , с. 277β€”278.
  63. ↑ О. Π’. ЛосСв - ΠΏΠΈΠΎΠ½Π΅Ρ€ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ элСктроники, 1986 , с. 184.
  64. ↑ ОлСг Π’Π»Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΌΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΈΡ‡ ЛосСв: БиблиографичСский ΠΎΡ‡Π΅Ρ€ΠΊ, 1972 , с. 175β€”194.
  65. ↑ Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diodes, 1976 , с. 697.
  66. ↑ Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diodes, 1976 , с. 676.
  67. ↑ АмСриканцы ΠΎ русском ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ±Ρ€Π΅Ρ‚Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΈ, 1924 , с. 22.
  68. ↑ ΠŸΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΈ Π² соврСмСнной Ρ„ΠΈΠ·ΠΈΠΊΠ΅, 1954 , с. four.
  69. ↑ ΠŸΠΎΠ»ΡƒΠΏΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΈ Π² соврСмСнной Ρ„ΠΈΠ·ΠΈΠΊΠ΅, 1954 , с. 246.
  70. ↑ ΠŸΠ΅Ρ€Π²Ρ‹Π΅ Π³ΠΎΠ΄Ρ‹ совСтской Ρ€Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΎΡ‚Π΅Ρ…Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΈ Ρ€Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΡŽΠ±ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΡΡ‚Π²Π°, 1954 , с. 245.
  71. ↑ ΠŸΡ€Π΅Π·Π΅Π½Ρ‚Π°Ρ†ΠΈΡ сборника статСй Β«ΠžΠΏΠ΅Ρ€Π΅Π΄ΠΈΠ²ΡˆΠΈΠΉ врСмя», посвящСнных О. Π’. ЛосСву Π½Π° сайтС НиТСгородского унивСрситСта ΠΈΠΌ. Н. И. ЛобачСвского
  72. ↑ ΠžΠ±ΡŠΠ΅ΠΊΡ‚ Β«Π‘Π²Π΅Ρ‚ ЛосСва» Архивная копия ΠΎΡ‚ 7 мая 2013 Π½Π° Wayback Machine Π½Π° сайтС 11-Π³ΠΎ фСстиваля Β«Π‘ΠΎΠ²Ρ€Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ΅ искусство Π² Ρ‚Ρ€Π°Π΄ΠΈΡ†ΠΈΠΎΠ½Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΠΌΡƒΠ·Π΅Π΅Β»
  73. ↑ О. Π’. ЛосСв β€” ΡƒΡ‡Ρ‘Π½Ρ‹ΠΉ, ΠΎΠΏΠ΅Ρ€Π΅Π΄ΠΈΠ²ΡˆΠΈΠΉ врСмя! Π Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΡŽΠ±ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ Π΄ΠΈΠΏΠ»ΠΎΠΌ
  74. ↑ Π’ Π’Π²Π΅Ρ€ΠΈ появился сквСр ЛосСва Π‘ΠΊΠ²Π΅Ρ€ ΠΈΠΌ. О. Π’. ЛосСва Π² Π’Π²Π΅Ρ€ΠΈ

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