Hydrogen ( H , lat. Hydrogenium ) is a chemical element of the periodic system with the designation H and atomic number 1. Having 1 a. E. m., hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe , accounting for approximately 75% of the total baryonic mass. Stars, in addition to compact ones , are mainly composed of hydrogen plasma . The most common hydrogen isotope, called protium (a name rarely used; designation - 1 H), has one proton and has no neutrons .
| Hydrogen | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Helium → | ||||
| ||||
| The appearance of a simple substance | ||||
| Gas without color, odor and taste | ||||
 Hydrogen in the discharge tube | ||||
| Atom properties | ||||
| Name, symbol, number | Hydrogen / Hydrogenium (H), 1 | |||
| Atomic mass ( molar mass ) | [ ; 1.00811] [comm 1] [1] a. E. m. ( g / mol ) | |||
| Electronic configuration | 1s 1 | |||
| Atom radius | 53 pm | |||
| Chemical properties | ||||
| Covalent radius | 32 pm | |||
| Ion radius | 54 (−1 e) pm | |||
| Electronegativity | 2.20 [2] (Pauling scale) | |||
| Oxidation state | +1, 0, −1 | |||
| Ionization energy (first electron) | 1311.3 (13.595) kJ / mol ( eV ) | |||
| Thermodynamic properties of a simple substance | ||||
| Density (at N. at. ) | 0.0000899 (at 273 K (0 ° C)) g / cm³ | |||
| Melting temperature | 14.01 K ; −259.14 ° C | |||
| Boiling temperature | 20.28 K ; −252.87 ° C | |||
| Beats heat of fusion | 0.117 kJ / mol | |||
| Beats heat of vaporization | 0.904 kJ / mol | |||
| Molar heat capacity | 28.47 [3] J / (K · mol) | |||
| Molar volume | 14.1 cm³ / mol | |||
| The crystal lattice of a simple substance | ||||
| Lattice structure | hexagonal | |||
| Lattice options | a = 3,780 c = 6,167 Å | |||
| C / a ratio | 1,631 | |||
| Debye temperature | 110 K | |||
| Other characteristics | ||||
| Thermal conductivity | (300 K) 0.1815 W / (mK) | |||
| CAS Number | ||||
| Emission spectrum | ||||
 | ||||
| one | Hydrogen |
H | |
| 1s 1 | |
The widespread occurrence of atomic hydrogen first occurred in the era of recombination . At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless, non-toxic diatomic gas with the molecular formula H 2 , which, in a mixture with air or oxygen, is combustible and explosive [3] . Since hydrogen readily forms covalent bonds with most non-metals , most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular compounds such as water or organic matter . Hydrogen plays a particularly significant role in acid-base reactions , because most of these reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules.
It is soluble in ethanol and a number of metals : iron , nickel , palladium , titanium , platinum , niobium .
Three isotopes of hydrogen have their own names : 1 H - protium (H), 2 H - deuterium (D) and 3 H - tritium (T, radioactive ).
Content
- 1 Discovery History
- 2 Origin of the name
- 3 prevalence
- 3.1 In the Universe
- 3.2 Earth's crust and living organisms
- 4 Receiving
- 4.1 In industry
- 4.2 In the laboratory
- 4.3 Cleaning
- 5 Physical properties
- 6 Isotopes
- 7 Properties of isotopes
- 8 Chemical properties
- 8.1 Interaction with alkali and alkaline earth metals
- 8.2 Reaction with metal oxides
- 8.3 Hydrogenation of organic compounds
- 9 Geochemistry of hydrogen
- 10 Precautions
- 11 Cost
- 12 Application
- 12.1 Chemical industry
- 12.2 Oil refining industry
- 12.3 Food and cosmetic industry
- 12.4 Chemical laboratories
- 12.5 Aircraft industry
- 12.6 Meteorology
- 12.7 Fuel
- 12.8 Power
- 12.9 Others
- 13 Notes
- 14 Literature
- 15 Links
Discovery History
The evolution of combustible gas during the interaction of acids and metals was observed in the 16th and 17th centuries at the dawn of the emergence of chemistry as a science. For the first time, Paracelsus received hydrogen by immersing iron filings in sulfuric acid in the 16th century. Mikhail Lomonosov also directly pointed out his isolation, but he was already definitely aware that this was not a phlogiston . The English physicist and chemist Henry Cavendish in 1766 investigated this gas and called it "combustible air." When burning, “combustible air” gave water, but Cavendish’s adherence to the theory of phlogiston prevented him from drawing the right conclusions. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, together with the engineer Jean Ménier , using special gas meters, synthesized water in 1783 and then analyzed it by decomposing water vapor with hot iron. So he established that "combustible air" is part of the water and can be obtained from it.
Name Origin
Lavoisier gave hydrogen the name hydrogène (from the Greek Greek ὕδωρ - water and γεννάω - give birth) - "giving birth to water." In 1801, a follower of Lavoisier, academician Vasily Severgin , called it “the aquatic substance”, he wrote [4] :
An aquifer in combination with an acidic substance is water. This can be proved, both through permission and through drafting.
The Russian name “hydrogen” was proposed by the chemist Mikhail Solovyov in 1824 - by analogy with the “ oxygen ” of Lomonosov .
Prevalence
In the Universe
Hydrogen is the most common element in the Universe [5] . It accounts for about 88.6% of all atoms (about 11.3% are helium atoms, the share of all other elements taken together is about 0.1%) [6] . Thus, hydrogen is the main component of stars and interstellar gas . Under stellar temperatures (for example, the surface temperature of the Sun ~ 6000 ° C), hydrogen exists in the form of plasma , in the interstellar space this element exists in the form of individual molecules , atoms and ions and can form molecular clouds that vary significantly in size, density and temperature.
Earth's crust and living organisms
The mass fraction of hydrogen in the earth's crust is 1% - this is the tenth most abundant element. However, its role in nature is determined not by mass, but by the number of atoms, the proportion of which among the remaining elements is 17% (second place after oxygen , the fraction of atoms of which is ~ 52%). Therefore, the value of hydrogen in chemical processes occurring on Earth is almost as great as oxygen.
Unlike oxygen existing on Earth in both bound and free states, almost all of the hydrogen on Earth is in the form of compounds; only in a very small amount of hydrogen in the form of a simple substance is contained in the atmosphere (0.00005% by volume for dry air [7] [8] ).
Hydrogen is a part of almost all organic substances and is present in all living cells, where almost 63% of the number of atoms in hydrogen is [9] .
Getting
In Industry
- Steam conversion at 1000 ° C:
- Passing water vapor over red-hot coke at a temperature of about 1000 ° C:
- Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of salts:
- Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of active metal hydroxides (mainly potassium hydroxide ) [10]
- In addition, there is an industrial technology for the electrolysis of chemically pure water, without the use of any additives. In fact, the device is a reversible fuel cell with a solid polymer membrane [10] .
- Catalytic oxidation by oxygen:
- Cracking and reforming of hydrocarbons in the oil refining process.
In the laboratory
- The effect of dilute acids on metals . To carry out such a reaction, zinc and dilute sulfuric acid are most often used:
- The interaction of calcium with water :
- Hydrolysis of hydrides :
- The action of alkalis on zinc or aluminum :
- By electrolysis . During the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of alkalis or acids , hydrogen is generated at the cathode , for example:
Cleaning
The industry has implemented several methods for the purification of hydrogen from carbon-containing raw materials (the so-called hydrogen-containing gas - WASH) [11] .
- Low-temperature condensation : The WASH is cooled to the condensation temperatures of methane and ethane , after which the hydrogen is separated by distillation . The process is carried out at a temperature of −158 ° C and a pressure of 4 MPa . The purity of the purified hydrogen is 93–94% at a concentration of up to 40% in the initial hydrogen chloride.
- Adsorption on zeolites : The present method is by far the most common in the world. The method is quite flexible and can be used both for the evolution of hydrogen from the WASH, and for the post-treatment of already purified hydrogen. In the first case, the process is carried out at pressures of 3.0-3.5 MPa . The degree of hydrogen extraction is 80-85% with a purity of 99%. In the second case, the Union Carbide PSA process is often used. It was first implemented in industry in 1978. Currently, there are more than 250 installations from 0.6 to 3.0 million m 3 N 2 / day. High purity hydrogen of 99.99% is formed.
- Absorption by liquid solvents : This method is rarely used, although hydrogen is obtained with a high purity of 99.9%.
- Concentration of hydrogen on membranes : On the best samples, the method allows to obtain hydrogen with a purity of 95-96%, but the productivity of such plants is low.
- Selective absorption of hydrogen by metals : The method is based on the ability of alloys of lanthanum with nickel , iron with titanium , zirconium with nickel and others to absorb up to 30 volumes of hydrogen.
Physical Properties
Hydrogen is the lightest gas : it is 14.5 times lighter than air. Therefore, for example, soap bubbles filled with hydrogen tend to rise upward in air [12] . The smaller the mass of the molecules, the higher their speed at the same temperature. As the lightest, the hydrogen molecules move faster than the molecules of any other gas and thereby can transfer heat faster from one body to another. It follows that hydrogen has the highest thermal conductivity among gaseous substances. Its thermal conductivity is about 7 times higher than the thermal conductivity of air.
The hydrogen molecule is diatomic - H 2 . Under normal conditions, it is a gas without color, odor or taste. Density is 0.08987 g / l ( n.a. ), boiling point −252.76 ° C, specific heat of combustion 120.9 12010 6 J / kg , slightly soluble in water - 18.8 ml / l .
Hydrogen is readily soluble in many metals ( Ni , Pt , Pd , etc.), especially in palladium (850 volumes of H 2 per 1 volume of Pd). The solubility of hydrogen in metals is associated with its ability to diffuse through them; diffusion through a carbon alloy (e.g. steel) is sometimes accompanied by destruction of the alloy due to the interaction of hydrogen with carbon (the so-called decarbonization). Practically insoluble in silver .
Liquid hydrogen exists in a very narrow temperature range from −252.76 to −259.2 ° C. It is a colorless liquid, very light ( density at −253 ° C 0.0708 g / cm³ ) and flowing ( viscosity at −253 ° C 13.8 cP ). The critical parameters of hydrogen are very low: temperature −240.2 ° C and pressure 12.8 atm . This explains the difficulties in liquefying hydrogen. In the liquid state, equilibrium hydrogen consists of 99.79% para-H 2 , 0.21% ortho-H 2.
Solid hydrogen , melting point −259.2 ° C, density 0.0807 g / cm³ (at −262 ° C) - snow-like mass, crystals of hexagonal syngony , space group P6 / mmc, cell parameters a = 0.378 nm and c = 0 , 6167 nm .
In 1935, Winger and Huntington suggested that, at pressures in excess of 250 thousand atm, hydrogen can go into the metallic state . Obtaining this substance in a stable state opened up very attractive prospects for its use - because it would be an ultralight metal, a component of light and energy-intensive rocket fuel. In 2014, it was found that at a pressure of about 1.5–2.0 million atm, hydrogen begins to absorb infrared radiation , which means that the electron shells of hydrogen molecules are polarized . Perhaps, at even higher pressures, hydrogen will turn into a metal [13] . In 2017, a report appeared about a possible experimental observation of the transition of hydrogen to the metallic state under high pressure [14] [15] .
Molecular hydrogen exists in two spin forms (modifications): orthohydrogen and parahydrogen . Modifications vary slightly in physical properties, optical spectra, and also in neutron scattering characteristics. In the orthohydrogen molecule o -H 2 ( mp. −259.10 ° C, mp . −252.56 ° C), the spins of the nuclei are parallel, and in parahydrogen p -H2 (mp. −259.32 ° C, bp −252.89 ° C) - opposite to each other (antiparallel). An equilibrium mixture of o -H 2 and p -H 2 at a given temperature is called equilibrium hydrogen e -H 2 .
Hydrogen modifications can be separated by adsorption on activated carbon at the temperature of liquid nitrogen . At very low temperatures, the equilibrium between orthohydrogen and parahydrogen is almost completely shifted towards parahydrogen, since the energy of the para-molecule is slightly lower than the energy of the ortho-molecule. At 80 K, the ratio of modifications is approximately 1: 1. When heated with coal, para-hydrogen turns to orthohydrogen with the formation of an equilibrium mixture. At room temperature, a mixture of orthohydrogen and parahydrogen is in equilibrium in a ratio of about 75:25 [16] . Without a catalyst, mutual conversion occurs relatively slowly, which makes it possible to study the properties of both modifications. Under the conditions of a rarefied interstellar medium, the characteristic time of transition to the equilibrium mixture is very long, even cosmological.
Isotopes
Hydrogen is found in nature in the form of three isotopes that have individual names and chemical symbols: 1 H - protium (H), 2 H - deuterium (D), 3 H - tritium (T; radioactive).
Protium and deuterium are stable isotopes with mass numbers 1 and 2. Their content in nature is respectively 99.9885 ± 0.0070% and 0.0115 ± 0.0070% [17] . This ratio may vary slightly depending on the source and method of producing hydrogen.
The hydrogen isotope 3 H (tritium) is unstable. Its half-life is 12.32 years [17] . Tritium is found in nature in very small amounts, formed mainly during the interaction of cosmic rays with stable nuclei, during the capture of thermal neutrons by deuterium, and during the interaction of the natural lithium-6 isotope with neutrons generated by cosmic rays. Tritium undergoes beta decay , turning into a rare stable isotope of helium 3 He.
Heavy radioactive isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 4–7 and half-lives of 10–21–10–23 s were also artificially obtained [17] .
Natural molecular hydrogen is composed of H 2 and HD ( deuterium hydrogen ) molecules in a ratio of 3200: 1. The content of pure Deuterium D 2 molecules in the mixture is even lower. The concentration ratio of HD and D 2 molecules is approximately 6400: 1.
Of all the isotopes of chemical elements, the physical properties of hydrogen isotopes differ most strongly from each other. This is due to the largest relative change in atomic masses [18] .
Temperature
melting
KTemperature
boiling
KTriple
pointCritical
pointDensity,
kg / m³T , K P , kPa T , K P , MPa liquid gas H 2 13.96 20.39 13.96 7.3 32.98 1.31 70,811 1,316 HD 16.65 22.13 16.6 12.8 35.91 1.48 114.0 1,802 Ht 22.92 17.63 17.7 37.13 1,57 158.62 2,31 D 2 18.65 23.67 18.73 17.1 38.35 1,67 162.50 2.23 Dt 24.38 19.71 19,4 39.42 1.77 211.54 2,694 T 2 20.63 25.04 20.62 21.6 40,44 1.85 260.17 3,136
Deuterium and tritium also have ortho- and paramodifications: p -D 2 , o -D 2 , p -T 2 , o -T 2 . Heteroisotopic hydrogen molecules (HD, HT, DT) do not have ortho and paramodifications.
Isotope Properties
The properties of hydrogen isotopes are presented in the table [17] [19] .
| Isotope | Z | N | Mass, a. eat. | Half life | Spin | Content in nature,% | Type and decay energy | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 H | one | 0 | 1.007 825 032 07 (10) | stable | 1 ⁄ 2 + | 99.9885 (70) | ||
| 2 H | one | one | 2.014 101 777 8 (4) | stable | 1 + | 0.0115 (70) | ||
| 3 H | one | 2 | 3.016 049 277 7 (25) | 12.32 (2) years | 1 ⁄ 2 + | β - | 18.591 (1) keV | |
| 4 H | one | 3 | 4.027 81 (11) | 1.39 (10) ⋅10 −22 s | 2 - | -n | 23.48 (10) MeV | |
| 5 H | one | four | 5.035 31 (11) | more than 9.1⋅10 −22 s | ( 1 ⁄ 2 + ) | -nn | 21.51 (11) MeV | |
| 6 H | one | 5 | 6.044 94 (28) | 2.90 (70) ⋅ 10 −22 s | 2 - | −3n | 24.27 (26) MeV | |
| 7 H | one | 6 | 7,052 75 (108) | 2.3 (6) ⋅10 −23 s | 1 ⁄ 2 + | -nn | 23.03 (101) MeV | |
In parentheses is the standard deviation of the value in units of the last digit of the corresponding number.
The properties of the 1 H nucleus make it possible to widely use NMR spectroscopy in the analysis of organic substances .
Chemical Properties
Hydrogen molecules are strong enough, and in order for hydrogen to enter into a reaction, a lot of energy must be expended:
- - 432 kj
Therefore, at ordinary temperatures, hydrogen reacts only with very active metals, for example, with calcium , forming calcium hydride :
and with a single non-metal - fluorine , forming hydrogen fluoride :
With most metals and non-metals, hydrogen reacts at elevated temperatures or under other effects, for example, when illuminated:
The written equation reflects the reducing properties of hydrogen.
With halogens forms hydrogen halides:
- , the reaction proceeds with an explosion in the dark and at any temperature,
- , the reaction proceeds with an explosion, only in the light.
With soot interacts with strong heating:
Interaction with alkali and alkaline earth metals
When interacting with active metals, hydrogen forms hydrides:
Hydrides are salt-like, solid substances that are easily hydrolyzed:
Reaction with metal oxides
Metal oxides (usually d-elements ) are reduced to metals:
Hydrogenation of Organic Compounds
Molecular hydrogen is widely used in organic synthesis for the reduction of organic compounds. These processes are called hydrogenation reactions . These reactions are carried out in the presence of a catalyst at elevated pressure and temperature. The catalyst can be either homogeneous (e.g., Wilkinson's catalyst ) or heterogeneous (e.g., Raney nickel , palladium on carbon).
So, in particular, during the catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated compounds, such as alkenes and alkynes , saturated compounds are formed - alkanes .
Hydrochemistry of hydrogen
On Earth, the hydrogen content is reduced compared to the Sun, giant planets and primary meteorites, which implies that during the formation of the Earth was significantly degassed: the bulk of hydrogen, like other volatile elements, left the planet during accretion or shortly after it. However, the exact content of this gas in the composition of the geospheres of our planet (excluding the earth's crust ) - the asthenosphere , mantle , core of the Earth - is unknown.
Free hydrogen H 2 is relatively rare in terrestrial gases, but in the form of water it takes an extremely important part in geochemical processes. The hydrogen content in the composition of volcanic gases, the outflow of certain amounts of hydrogen along the faults in the riftogenesis zones, and the release of this gas in some coal deposits are known [20] [21] .
Hydrogen can be a part of minerals in the form of ammonium ion, hydroxyl ion and water .
In the atmosphere, molecular hydrogen is continuously formed as a result of decomposition of formaldehyde formed in the oxidation chain of methane or other organics by solar radiation (31–67 gigatons / year), incomplete combustion of various fuels and biomasses (5–25 gigatons / year), during fixation nitrogen by microorganisms from the air (3–22 gigatons / year) [22] [23] [24] .
Having a small mass, hydrogen molecules have a high diffusion motion velocity (it is close to the second cosmic velocity) and, falling into the upper atmosphere, can fly into outer space (see Dissipation of planetary atmospheres ). Losses are estimated at 3 kg per second [25] [26] .
Precautions
Hydrogen when mixed with air forms an explosive mixture - the so-called explosive gas . This gas has the greatest explosiveness with a volumetric ratio of hydrogen and oxygen of 2: 1, or of hydrogen and air about 2: 5, since oxygen contains about 21% of oxygen . Hydrogen is also flammable . Liquid hydrogen in contact with skin can cause severe frostbite .
Explosive concentrations of hydrogen with oxygen are believed to occur from 4% to 96% by volume. When mixed with air from 4% to 75 (74)% by volume. Such figures now appear in most directories, and they can be used for rough estimates. However, it should be borne in mind that later studies (around the end of the 80s) revealed that hydrogen in large volumes can be explosive at a lower concentration. The larger the volume, the lower the concentration of hydrogen is dangerous.
The source of this widely propagated error is that explosiveness was investigated in laboratories on small volumes. Since the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is a chain chemical reaction that proceeds according to the free radical mechanism, the "death" of free radicals on the walls (or, say, the surface of dust particles) is critical for the continuation of the chain. In cases where it is possible to create "borderline" concentrations in large volumes (premises, hangars, workshops), it should be borne in mind that the real explosive concentration can differ from 4% both upwards and downwards .
Cost
The cost of hydrogen in bulk deliveries ranges from 2–7 USD / kg [27] . In small quantities it is transported in steel cylinders of green or dark green color.
Application
Hydrogen is used today in many fields. The structure of global hydrogen consumption is presented in the following table.
| Application | Share |
|---|---|
| Ammonia production | 54% |
| Oil refining and chemical industry | 35% |
| Electronics Manufacturing | 6% |
| Metallurgy and glass industry | 3% |
| Food industry | 2% |
Chemical industry
The chemical industry is the largest consumer of hydrogen. About 50% of the global hydrogen output goes to ammonia production. Another 8% is used for methanol production [29] . Plastics, fertilizers, explosives and more are made from ammonia. Methanol is the basis for the production of certain plastics.
Oil refining industry
In oil refining, hydrogen is used in hydrocracking and hydrotreating processes, helping to increase the depth of crude oil refining and improving the quality of final products. For these purposes, about 37% of all hydrogen produced in the world is used [29] .
Food and Cosmetic Industry
In the manufacture of salomas (solid fat made from vegetable oils ). Salomas is the basis for the production of margarine , cosmetics, soaps. Hydrogen is registered as a food supplement E949 .
Chemical laboratories
Hydrogen is used in chemical laboratories as a carrier gas in gas chromatography . There are such laboratories at many enterprises in the food, perfumery, metallurgical and chemical industries. Despite the combustibility of hydrogen, its use in this role is considered quite safe, since hydrogen is used in small quantities. In this case, the efficiency of hydrogen as a carrier gas is better than that of helium, at a significantly lower cost. [thirty]
Aviation industry
At present, hydrogen is not used in aviation. Once airships and balloons were filled with hydrogen. But in the 30s. XX century There were several disasters during which the airships exploded and burned. Nowadays, airships are filled with helium, despite its significantly higher cost.
Meteorology
Hydrogen is used in meteorology to fill the shells of weather balloons . As such, hydrogen has an advantage over helium, since it is cheaper. Even more significantly, hydrogen is generated directly at the weather station using a simple chemical generator or by electrolysis of water. Helium must be delivered to the weather station in cylinders, which can be difficult for remote locations [31] .
Fuel
Hydrogen is used as rocket fuel . Due to the extremely narrow temperature range (less than 7 Kelvin), at which hydrogen remains a liquid, in practice a mixture of liquid and solid phases ( puffed hydrogen) is more often used.
Research is underway on the use of hydrogen as a fuel for cars and trucks , although hydrogen embrittlement of steels is a serious problem here, which does not allow direct conversion of a conventional ICE to this gas. Hydrogen in the internal combustion engine less pollutes the environment locally (using hydrogen as such makes it difficult to obtain it and the associated additional costs for its compression, transportation), but, like gasoline / diesel analogues, it consumes and degrades motor oil and all other non-environmental materials inherent in internal combustion engines . In terms of ecology, electric cars are much better; the Stirling engine is also promising.
Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells use hydrogen to directly convert the energy of a chemical reaction into electrical energy.
Electricity
Hydrogen is used to cool powerful electric generators [32] .
Other
Atomic hydrogen is used for atomic hydrogen welding . High thermal conductivity of hydrogen is used to fill the spheres of gyro compasses and glass bulbs of filament LED bulbs.
Notes
- Comments
- ↑ The range of atomic mass values is indicated in connection with the different abundance of isotopes in nature.
- Sources
- ↑ Michael E. Wieser, Norman Holden, Tyler B. Coplen, John K. Böhlke, Michael Berglund, Willi A. Brand, Paul De Bièvre, Manfred Gröning, Robert D. Loss, Juris Meija, Takafumi Hirata, Thomas Prohaska, Ronny Schoenberg , Glenda O'Connor, Thomas Walczyk, Shige Yoneda, Xiang‑Kun Zhu. Atomic weights of the elements 2011 (IUPAC Technical Report) (англ.) // Pure and Applied Chemistry . — 2013. — Vol. 85 , no. 5 . — P. 1047—1078 . — DOI : 10.1351/PAC-REP-13-03-02 .
- ↑ Hydrogen: electronegativities (англ.) . Webelements. Дата обращения 15 июля 2010.
- ↑ 1 2 Водород // Химическая энциклопедия: в 5 т. / Кнунянц И. Л. (гл. ред.). — М. : Советская энциклопедия , 1988. — Т. 1: А—Дарзана. — С. 400—402. — 623 с. - 100,000 copies. — ISBN 5-85270-008-8 .
- ↑ Севергин В. М. Пробирное искусство, или руководство к химическому испытанию металлических руд и других ископаемых тел. СПб.: Издание Имп. АН, 1801. C. 2.
- ↑ Книга рекордов Гиннесса для химических веществ
- ↑ Н. Гринвуд, А. Эрншо. Химия элементов: в 2 томах. — БИНОМ. Лаборатория знаний, 2008. — Т. 1. — С. 11. — 607 с. — (Лучший зарубежный учебник). — ISBN 978-5-94774-373-9 .
- ↑ Gribbin, John. Science. A History (1543-2001). — L. : Penguin Books, 2003. — 648 с. — ISBN 978-0-140-29741-6 .
- ↑ Source for figures: Carbon dioxide, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory , (updated 2010.06). Methane, IPCC TAR table 6.1 , (updated to 1998). The NASA total was 17 ppmv over 100 %, and CO 2 was increased here by 15 ppmv. To normalize, N 2 should be reduced by about 25 ppmv and O 2 by about 7 ppmv.
- ↑ Хорнак Д. П. Основы МРТ
- ↑ 1 2 Da Rosa, Aldo Vieira. Fundamentals of renewable energy processes . — Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. — С. 370. — xvii, 689 pages с. — ISBN 0120885107 .
- ↑ А.К.Мановян. Технология переработки природных энергоносителей. — Москва: Химия, КолосС, 2004. — 456 с. — ISBN 5-98109-004-9 , 5-9532-0219-97.
- ↑ Мыльные пузыри с водородом Архивная копия от 26 июля 2014 на Wayback Machine — видеоопыт в Единой коллекции цифровых образовательных ресурсов.
- ↑ Неограническая химия. Том 2. Химия непереходных элементов / под ред. Acad. Ю. Д. Третьякова . — Москва: Академия, 2004. — 368 с. — ISBN 5-7695-1436-1 .
- ↑ Dias Ranga P. , Silvera Isaac F. Observation of the Wigner-Huntington transition to metallic hydrogen // Science. — 2017. — 26 января ( т. 355 , № 6326 ). — С. 715—718 . — ISSN 0036-8075 . — DOI : 10.1126/science.aal1579 .
- ↑ Алексей Понятов. Десять крупнейших событий 2017 года в физике и астрономии. Стабильный металлический водород (рус.) // Наука и жизнь . — 2018. — № 1 . — С. 9 .
- ↑ Фаркаш Л. Орто- и параводород. Успехи физических наук , т. 15, вып. 3. 1935 г.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Audi G. , Bersillon O. , Blachot J. , Wapstra AH The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties // Nuclear Physics A . — 2003. — Т. 729 . — С. 3—128 . — DOI : 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 . — .
- ↑ Züttel A., Borgschulte A., Schlapbach L. Hydrogen as a Future Energy Carrier. — Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2008. — ISBN 978-3-527-30817-0 .
- ↑ Audi G. , Wapstra AH , Thibault C. The AME2003 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs, and references (англ.) // Nuclear Physics A . - 2003. - Vol. 729 . — P. 337—676 . — DOI : 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.003 . — .
- ↑ Портнов Александр. Вулканы — месторождения водорода. / Промышленные ведомости, № 10—12, октябрь—декабрь 2010.
- ↑ Гресов А. И., Обжиров А. И., Яцук А. В. К вопросу водородоносности угольных бассейнов Дальнего востока/ Вестник КРАУНЦ. Науки о Земле. 2010, № 1, Выпуск 15. С. 19—32.
- ↑ http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/3375/2011/acp-11-3375-2011.pdf A new estimation of the recent tropospheric molecular hydrogen budget using atmospheric observations and variational inversion] doi:10.5194/acp-11-3375-2011 , 2011 «The main sources of H2 are photochemical production by the transformation of formaldehyde (HCHO) in the atmosphere and incomplete combustion processes. Photolysis of HCHO, a product in the oxidation chain of methane and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) accounts for 31 to 77 Tg yr−1 and represents half of the total H2 source. Fossil fuel and biomass burning emissions, two incomplete combustion sources, account for similar shares of the global H2 budget (5−25 Tg yr−1). H2 emissions (3−22 Tg yr−1) originating from nitrogen fixation in the continental and marine biosphere complete the sources. H2 oxidation by free hydroxyl radicals (OH) and enzymatic H2 destruction in soils must balance these sources because tropospheric H2 does not show a significant long term trend (Grant et al., 2010)»
- ↑ Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere pages 207—201, table 4.14
- ↑ Global environmental impacts of the hydrogen economy page 61 table 1
- ↑ David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, The Planetary Air Leak. As Earth's atmosphere slowly trickles away into space, will our planet come to look like Venus? //SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, May 2009
- ↑ Ferronsky VI, Denisik SA, Ferronsky SV Chapter 8. Global Dynamics of the Earth // Jacobi Dynamics: Many-Body Problem in Integral Characteristics. — (Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 130) . — Springer Science & Business Media, 1986. — P. 296. — ISBN 9027724180 , 9789027724182.
- ↑ Аркадий Шварц. Снова о водороде . Вестник online № 19(356) 15 сентября 2004.
- ↑ Olu Ajayi-Oyakhire. Hydrogen – Untapped Energy? . Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers . Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (2012).
- ↑ 1 2 Р. В. Радченко, А. С. Мокрушин, В. В. Тюльпа. Водород в энергетике. — Екатеринбург: Издательство Уральского университета, 2014. — С. 24. — 229 с. — ISBN 978-5-7996-1316-7 .
- ↑ Helium - what is the current cost to labs? . www.peakscientific.com. Дата обращения 17 ноября 2015.
- ↑ А.А. Иванов (руководитель разработки). Наставление гидрометеорологическим постам и станциям. Выпуск 4. . Росгидромет . Росгидромет (16 июля 2003).
- ↑ Принцип действия и конструкция синхронных машин
Literature
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Links
- Hydrogen at The Periodic Table of Videos ( University of Nottingham )
- Ferreira-Aparicio, P.; Benito, MJ; Sanz, JL New Trends in Reforming Technologies: from Hydrogen Industrial Plants to Multifuel Microreformers (англ.) // Catalysis Reviews : journal. - 2005. - Vol. 47 , no. 4 . — P. 491—588 . — DOI : 10.1080/01614940500364958 .