Chinese civilization

Zhongguo

Zhongguo (中國 / 中国) is the self-name of China. The first character " zhong " (中) means "center" or "middle". The second sign of “ go ” (國 or 国) is interpreted as “country” or “state”. Since the 19th century, in Western and Russian historiography, this name of China has been translated as “Middle State” or “Middle Empire”. However, such a translation is not entirely correct, since the word " chungo " has long been used to designate the center of the " Celestial Empire " - the territory to which the power of the emperor - the " Son of Heaven " with a " Heavenly Mandate " to rule. Accordingly, the exact translation is “Central Country” or “Central State”.

The term Zhongguo is not used constantly in the history of China. He had a diverse cultural and political subtext depending on the era ^[1] .

By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the meaning of the word "zhongguo" evolved towards expanding the boundary of the term. As the Book of Songs writes, written around 1000 BC. e., at first they designated the districts around the capital or imperial possessions.

During the Chunqiu period (722–481 BC), the word “zhungguo” denoted state entities that derived their political genealogy from the Western Zhou Dynasty (1122–771 BC) in the Yellow River Valley. In this they contrasted themselves with the Chu kingdom, located south, on the Yangtze River , and the Qin state in the " barbarian West."

However, during the period of the Han Empire ( 206 BC - 220 ), the rogue states of Chu and Qin became part of the Chinese empire, therefore, they were automatically included in the “ zhongguo ”. Thus, a broader concept of “Central country” has developed. Over time, this concept began to refer to territories subordinate to the "central" power. As the “Historical Notes” of Sima Qian testify : “Eight mountains are known in the empire. Three of them are with the barbarians Man and I. Five are with the “chungo” . ”

There was also an understanding of Zhongguo as the lands of the North Chinese Plain . Thus, the Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms ( III century ) contrast these territories, calling them “central”, to the edges in the Yangtze River Valley - Wu and Yue. In this sense, “zhungguo” is associated with ethnic Chinese (hua 华 or 華, xia 夏) lands.

The change in the meaning of the term occurred with the beginning of the invasions of the northern nomadic tribes into China, which captured the "cradle" of Chinese civilization and created their own states in the plain of the Yellow River . The new, ethnically non-Chinese dynasties of Northern China began to call their possessions " zhungguo ", and the enemy southern governments of the ethnic Chinese of South China - "barbarians." Accordingly, in the middle of the 1st millennium, the term “ Zhongguo ” was transformed, and it moved from an ethnic to a political plane. Since that time, the concept of “Central State” has become associated more with a certain geographical and political-civilizational community than with an ethnic group.

However, in the Middle Ages, the Zhongguo did not completely lose its ethnic context. During the reign of the Tang Dynasty , the Chinese lands of the north and south were united, which contributed to the spread of the use of the name "zhongguo" in the southern territory. A further split of China, in connection with the raids of the northern nomads, secured the name of the "central country" for the South Chinese lands precisely because they were the traditional location of ethnic Chinese power.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the term "Zhongguo" was first used in the name of the state of the Republic of China (中華民國, "People's State of Zhongguo"). Since 1949, the People's Republic of China (中华人民共和国) has also written this word in its official name.

The modern name for the nationality is “Chinese” (中国 人, Zhongguo Ren ) also contains this term. The frequent use of the word “chungo” contributes to the formation of a China-centric worldview of the people of China and the gradual “Sinization” of the national minorities of the PRC and the Republic of China.

Syric

Syrika, Serika ^[2] ( Greek Σηρική , lat. Serica ) - the ancient name of China ^[3] . It denotes the country of Serov ( dr. Greek. Σῆρες , lat. Seres "silk people") ^{[4] [5] [6]} . Most likely, comes from the Chinese " si " (絲, 丝 - silk). From this name came lat. sericum - “silk fabric”.

Ancient authors, in particular, Claudius Ptolemy ^[7] , called the inhabitants of South China ^{[4] as} Sinami, Xinyans ^[3] ( dr. Greek Σῖναι , Latin Sinae ). Ancient authors call the cities of Sera Metropolis and Sinae Metropolis as the final eastern points of the Great Silk Road. The exact location of these two cities is not yet known, but it is believed that Sera Metropolis was located west of Sinae Metropolis , since Xi'an is located west of Luoyang , which, according to some scholars, is Sinae Metropolis ^[8] . Sinae was changed to the Latin prefixes Sino- and Sin- , which began to denote objects and phenomena related to China ^[9] . In Russian, these prefixes are used in the words " sinology ", "sinologist" and others.

China

The name "China", according to the common version, comes from the name "Katai", which, in turn, arose from the name of not the Chinese, but the proto-Mongolian group of nomadic tribes from Manchuria - Khitan (Chinese). In 907, they captured North China and founded their Liao dynasty in it. Their place in the XII-XIII centuries was taken by other nomads - the Jurchen and the Mongols , but the ethnonym of their predecessors was fixed as the toponym of Northern China. Thanks to European merchants, in particular, Marco Polo , this name in the form of "Cathay" fell into medieval Western Europe . From here it passed into most Slavic languages, where it turned into "China." In the West, Katay is rarely used as the poetic name of China.

The term "China" may also be defined:

•   People's Republic of China (PRC) - a state that controls mainland China, as well as the islands of Hong Kong and Macau ;
•   The Republic of China is the state that owns Taiwan and the adjacent islands;
• “Actually China” is a historical and cultural region that occupies the territory of modern China without Manchuria, Inner Mongolia , Tibet and East Turkestan ( Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region ). That is, "ethnic China";
• “Greater China” is a socio-economic region that includes mainland China, Hong Kong , Macau and Taiwan .

The word “Chinese” or “Chinese” means belonging to China as a universal formation of “chungo” - “Central State”, and not to an ethnic group. In this sense, it is close to the meaning of the words “Russian” or “American”. Nevertheless, we should not forget that in China there has long been a dominant ethnic Han group (the titular nation , which makes up over 90% of the population of the PRC and the Republic of China), with which the population of the country is predominantly associated with the Russian Federation and the Anglo-Saxons of the United States. . This ethnic group was originally called the Chinese, and eventually extrapolated it to other ethnic groups. Therefore, the indiscriminate use of the name "Chinese" for immigrants from modern China or the Republic of China only contributes to the assimilation policy of the governments of these countries regarding ethnic "non-Chinese" peoples.

China

The name China comes from the Persian. چین ( Čini) "Chinese" ^[10] from Skt. चीन (cīna) from Chinese 秦 , the name of the Chinese Qin Dynasty ( 221 - 206 BC ) ^[9] . It is first used in the book of the Portuguese officer Duarte Barbosa , written around 1518 ^[11] and translated by Richard Eden ( Richard Eden ) into English in 1555 ^[9] .

The name China is used for China in Central Europe , in particular in Portuguese, Spanish, English, German and Romanian. In Polish, Chiny is used. The name Kina is used mainly in Northern Europe , in particular in Denmark, Norway and Sweden , as well as in the Serbo-Croatian language . In Greece, the name Κίνα is used .

China is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. It is on a par with the civilizations of the Sumerians of the Tigris and Euphrates , Indians Indus and Egyptians Nile . A feature of Chinese civilization is that it developed in isolation from other civilization centers. Her achievement was, first of all, the logographic system of writing, which is used today in the countries of East Asia .

Prehistoric Period

Archaeological finds show that ancient people of the species Homo erectus populated the territory of modern China between 2.24 million - 250 thousand years ago. In the area of Zhoukoudian near Beijing , the remains of the so-called Sinanthropus were found, which date back 550-300 thousand years ago. The synanthropes knew how to make simple stone tools and make fire.

About 70,000 years ago, new people of the modern species Homo sapiens populated the Chinese Plain, crowding out the synanthropes and their descendants. The earliest osteological evidence of the existence of modern people in China (human remains from the Liujiang site) dates back to 67 millennium BC. e.

Statehood in China has a very long history. Legends, the origin of which historians date back to the third millennium BC , brought to us the names of the first three rulers and five emperors of China.

According to modern historiography, the first dynasty of China was Xia . Some Chinese scholars believe that the excavation of urban settlements and graves near Erlitou in Henan Province is evidence of its existence. This archaeological culture dates from the period from 2070 to 1600 BC. e. In the settlements found workshops for the production of bronze vessels, ceramics, stamps with simple hieroglyphs. Most Western scholars deny the existence of this dynasty.

Ancient States in China

The first historically reliable dynasty is considered to be the Shang dynasty (another name is Yin), which controlled the plain of the Yellow River in East China between the XVIII and XII centuries BC. e. It was destroyed by one of the western vassal clans, who founded the Zhou Dynasty , which ruled from the XII to the V century BC. e. The central authority of the new dynasty weakened due to the increase in political and economic power of the specific rulers, who created in the middle of the VIII century BC. e. a number of formally independent states. From V to II century BC. e. these states constantly fought among themselves, but in 221 BC. e. Qin Shi Huang-di were united into a single empire. The new Qin dynasty lasted several decades, but it was she who formed China as an imperial entity.

The period of domination of the Han dynasty lasted from 206 BC. e. for 220 years. During this period, the formation of the Chinese as a single ethnic community began.

Medieval States in China

After the disintegration of China in the III-VI centuries in connection with the attacks of nomads from the north, the empire was united by the Sui dynasty in 580. VII-XIV centuries, the time of the reign of the Tang and Song dynasties , are considered the "golden age" of China. It was during this period that the majority of scientific discoveries and achievements in culture took place. In 1271, the Mongol ruler Khubilai announced the beginning of a new Yuan Dynasty . In 1368, as a result of the anti-Mongol uprising, a new ethnically Chinese Ming dynasty began , which ruled China until 1644.

Qing Empire

The last imperial dynasty of China was the Qing Dynasty , which began the conquerors of China, the Manchus . She was overthrown by the revolution in 1911.

Like most Chinese regimes, Qing rule was authoritarian . Hard methods were often used to ensure stability of power. During the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty, ethnic Han Chinese were forced to wear a long braid, like the Manchu, in sign of fidelity to the new dynasty.

In the 18th century, technologically powerful China pursued an active policy of subjugating the peoples of Central Asia , whom the Chinese had long considered "barbarians." However, in the 19th century he himself became a victim of the "barbarians of the West" - the colonial policy of the countries of Western Europe and the USA . The most destructive role for Chinese civilization was played by the Opium Wars , as a result of which, by 1860, China had finally become economically dependent on Great Britain and France.

Republican China

On January 1, 1912, with the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the Republic of China (another name for the Republic of China ) was established. Sun Yat-sen , leader of the Kuomintang National Party, was proclaimed the first president. Soon he was removed from this post by former Qing General Yuan Shikai , who proclaimed himself the new emperor, but his empire died with him.

After Yuan, Shikai China was de facto fragmented into a number of provincial governments, although de jure the international community recognized only the Beijing government as central. In 1927, the Kuomintang party under the command of Chiang Kai-shek was able to unite the country. The capital was moved to the city of Nanjing . Since the nationalists seized power and created a one-party government, a powerful opposition appeared in the country - the Communists . The struggle between government forces and the Red partisans continued, which weakened China and impeded the implementation of democratic reforms.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945 for a while united nationalists and communists against a common enemy. But after the surrender of Japan in 1945, the state treasury of the Republic was empty. This led to the mutual accusations of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, which led to the civil war . The victory of the Communists forced the government of the Republic of China to move to the island of Taiwan , where it exists today.

Two China

With the victory in the civil war , the Chinese Communist Party proclaimed itself the successor of the Republic of China and on October 1, 1949 founded a new state - the People’s Republic of China ( PRC ).

In 1997, the PRC regained the territory of Hong Kong from Great Britain and in 1999 the territory of Macau from Portugal .

Modernity

The civil war in China at the end of World War II led to the actual division of this region into two states, which continue to use the word "China" in their name. This is the People’s Republic of China (PRC), which occupies the territory of mainland China, and the Republic of China , which controls the island of Taiwan and its neighboring islands.

Two states - the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of China - insist on the legitimacy of their power and claim that they are the full-fledged rulers of "China." China is a communist state, while the Republic of China is nationalistic. Хотя в 1949 году международная общественность признала за Китайской Республикой право на владение материковым Китаем, с 1970-х годов большинство стран изменило внешнеполитическую ориентацию на КНР и перенесли свои представительства из Тайбэя в Пекин .

Хотя правительство Китайской Республики не отказалось от своих претензий на Китай, Тибет и Внутреннюю Монголию , оно всё больше идентифицирует себя как правительство острова Тайвань . Политические круги Китайской Республики пребывают в постоянной диалектической борьбе относительно вопроса провозглашения независимости острова. КНР считает Тайвань неотъемлемой частью своего государства, а потому постоянно пытается вытеснить представителей Китайской Республики из разных международных организаций, усиливая его изоляцию.

На сегодня 23 государства, включая Ватикан , продолжают признавать Китайскую Республику официальным Китаем. В противовес этому, большинство правительств мира рассматривают КНР как законного представителя Китая.

Историческое деление Китая

Административные единицы высшего уровня Китая изменялись в зависимости от правящей династии или правительства. К этим единицам относят, в первую очередь, края и провинции. Среди единиц нижнего уровня существовали префектуры, подпрефектуры, департаменты, командирства, уезды и округа. К современным административным единицам относят города уровня подпрефектуры, города уровня округа, населённые пункты и городские общины.

Большинство китайских династий размещали свою резиденцию в сердце Китая, его этнически китайской части — долине реки Хуанхэ . Эти династии расширяли свои владения за счёт иностранных территорий Внутренней Монголии, Маньчжурии , Синьцзяна , Тибета, Вьетнама и Кореи . Хотя последняя манчьжурская династия Цин, наследниками которой считают себя КНР и Республика Китай , включила в Китай большинство вышеупомянутых земель, сам Китай имеет определённые древние границы — Великая китайская стена на севере, Тибетское плато на западе и джунгли Индокитая на юге.

На север от Великой китайской стены находятся Внутренняя Монголия и Маньчжурия, исконные места проживания евразийских кочевников, которые сейчас освоены этническими китайцами. На Западе расположены Синьцзян-Уйгурский и Тибетский автономные районы, в которых существовали государства уйгуров и тибетцев . Сейчас там также ускоренными темпами проводится ассимиляция. Юг Китая был родиной многих народностей, малочисленность и раздробленность которых практически никогда не представляла угрозы для китайской власти.

К традиционному разделению Китая относят разделение на Южный и Северный Китай, граница между которыми проходит по реке Хуай и горам Циньлун.

География и климат

Ландшафты Китая разнообразны. Горы и плато преобладают на западе, а низменности — на востоке и юго-востоке. В результате этого, основные реки текут с запада на восток, включая большие реки Хуанхэ , Янцзы , Амур , а некоторые — на юг (реки Меконг , Брахмапутра ). Большинство рек Китая впадает в Тихий океан .

На востоке, вдоль побережья Жёлтого и Восточно-китайского морей находятся аллювиальные равнины, которые плотно заселены. На севере, на краю плато Внутренней Монголии можно увидеть травянистую степь. Юг Китая покрыт холмами и невысокими горами. В центрально-восточной части расположены дельты Хуанхэ и Янцзы . Большинство пахотных земель находятся вдоль этих рек. Южная провинция Юньнань является частью так называемого субрегиона «Большой Меконг», в который входят Мьянма , Лаос , Таиланд , Камбоджа и Вьетнам .

В западной части Китая на севере находится большая аллювиальная равнина, а на юге — известняковое плоскогорье, покрытое холмами средней величины. В этой части Китая расположены Гималаи , с самой высокой в мире горой Эверестом . Северо-запад покрыт пустынями, такими как Такла-Макан и пустыня Гоби , которые постоянно разрастаются. В течение тысячелетий горы провинции Юньнань служат природной границей, которая отделяет Китай от Бирмы , Лаоса и Вьетнама.

Климат Китая разнообразен. Северная зона, которая включает Пекин , характеризуется очень холодными зимами. Центральная зона, которая включает Шанхай , умеренная. Для южной зоны, которая включает Гуанчжоу , характерен субтропический климат.

В связи с частыми засухами и несовершенным хозяйствованием часто случаются пылевые или песчаные штормы весной. Ветер разносит пыль в восточном направлении, до Тайваня и Японии . Шторма иногда достигают Западного побережья США . Вода, эрозия грунтов и загрязнение окружающей среды Китая перерастают из внутренних китайских проблем в международные.

Demographics

Население Китая (КНР и Республики Китай) составляет 1390 миллионов человек в 2012. Это одна пятая часть всего населения Земли . Хотя в КНР проживает более 100 этносов, коммунистическое правительство признаёт только 56. Наибольшей этнической группой Китая являются ханьцы (собственно китайцы ) — 91,9 %. Она неоднородна и делится на ряд этнографических групп, большинство из которых — это бывшие самодостаточные этносы, ассимилированные китайцами-ханьцами.

Ассимиляция — древний метод правителей Китая, направленный на увеличение количества лояльных режиму подданных. Много не-китайских этносов северных степей или южных джунглей исчезли в «плавильном котле» китайской культуры. Как правило, начало экспорта китайских технических и культурных ноу-хау этническим группам, которые стояли на более низком научном и социальном уровне, чем китайцы, ознаменовывало начало исчезновения самобытной культуры этих групп, с дальнейшим абсорбированием их представителей в ханьское общество.

Хотя сегодняшний термин «китаец» (中国人, чжунго жэнь , «человек Центрального государства») или «китайская нация» (中華民族/中华民族чжунхуа минцзу , «народ Центрального государства») является политическим трансэтническим понятием, они имеют этнический подконтекст. Концепция « чжунго » — «Центральной державы» — была изобретена самими этническими китайцами. Её пропагандирование среди не-китайских обществ в виде надэтнической категории уменьшало сопротивление китаизации этих обществ и, соответственно, ускоряло ассимиляцию не-китайских этносов.

Languages

Most Chinese languages ​​belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family . They speak about 29 ethnic groups. There are also several major and minor Chinese languages , sometimes called dialects. Among them, the most used are North Chinese (it is spoken by about 70% of the population), y (and its most famous Shanghai dialect ), yue ("Cantonese"), Minsk supergroup , Xiang , Gan and Hakka . Non-Chinese languages ​​include the languages ​​of Chuang (Thais), Mongols , Tibetans , Uyghurs (Türks), Hmong and Koreans . These languages ​​are spoken primarily by ethnic minorities.

" Putonghua " - a pronouncing standard based on northern dialects, a literary language - the official language of the PRC and the Republic of China . This version of the Chinese language is taught in schools, used in the media, literature, and government. Non-Chinese languages ​​are recognized as official in some autonomous regions where ethnic minorities live compactly.

Spoken Chinese or Baihua is the written standard for putonghua, which has been used officially since the 20th century. Before that, the standard written language was the classical Chinese language, Wenyang , modeled on medieval Latin . This language is still required to study in high school.

Chinese languages ​​are based on hieroglyphic writing, while the languages ​​Zhuang, Tibetan , Uigur, and Mongolian have their own alphabets.

Religion

Thanks to the "cultural revolution", 62% of the PRC population (797.7 million people) call themselves atheists. However, religion plays a very important role for a large group of mainland Chinese, especially Buddhism , Taoism and Confucianism (more than 50 million more recently, Catholicism).

The PRC is an atheistic secular state, but it allows following religious practices recognized by the government. That is, there is an opportunity to realize, albeit limitedly, the right to freedom of conscience. Taoism and Buddhism, together with the moralistic Confucian codex, have been China's main religious teachings for 2 millennia, so even the communist government cannot neglect this tradition.

The Republic of China , according to official figures from the Chinese leadership, does not limit any religion or creed. There are no barriers to the realization of the right to freedom of conscience. According to some reports, there are restrictions in religion for members of the only party in China - the Communist Party of Officials. Also, there are widely known cases of the prohibition of religious movements, for example, Falun Gong and radical Islam.

However, there is another opinion on how the Chinese Communist Party relates to believers ^{[12] [13]} :

In mid-February 2006, a group of human rights experts from the United Kingdom Jubilee Campaign published a 140-page material consisting of classified documents that were illegally transferred by the Chinese Ministry of Public Security to the Religious Investigation Investigation Committee. Earlier, evidence of sadistic persecution of believers in the PRC leaked through information barriers quite often, but the document mentioned is the first time that official documents were at the disposal of stunned researchers, which made it possible to judge the scope of the anti-religious activities of neo-Maoists, their methodology and plans.

According to these documents, the Chinese government is conducting a systematic study of "cults" that can become a "creeping threat to our security and protection." By them are meant all religious organizations that are not registered by the public security organs, except for fourteen registered and, in the opinion of the party leadership, “peaceful and safe.” As part of the “creeping threat”, besides local cults, there were communities of Catholics and Protestants who decided not to join the “patriotic” religious organizations controlled by atheistic authorities, illegal Buddhist and other religious groups. For this kind of "threat to the national security of China", believers - Christians, Muslims and others - run the risk of being sentenced to life imprisonment or to be executed.

Culture

The events of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries forced the Chinese to reflect on the need to refuse or maintain their own civilizational model. The Westerners promised China a "bright future" on the condition of total westernization and set Japan as an example. The policy of imposing democracy in traditional Chinese society was defeated, partly because of the authoritarian "tradition" of government, and partly because of internal and external wars.

Chinese society maintained medieval traditions until the start of the so-called " cultural revolution " in the PRC . Its goal was to reform the Chinese village, propagate new communist values, create a new advanced Chinese culture, "not limited to Confucian dogmas." As a result of the “revolution,” many cultural figures were repressed, and most traditions were eliminated as “regressive practices” or “feudal survivals.” The hieroglyphic writing was reformed, which made the texts of works written by their predecessors inaccessible to future generations. However, since the 1980s, the “cultural revolution” has been discontinued, and the communist government has embarked on the formation of a “patriotic nation,” beginning the restoration of traditions.

In Taiwan, such cultural reforms have not been carried out, respecting the traditions of writing and bureaucracy. A significant part of the budget of the Republic of China went to the training of specialists in the field of culture.

Writing System

Chinese character counts over 50 thousand characters. She changed and had different writing styles. The first signs appear on the bones for divination 2 millennia BC. e. Calligraphy, the ability to beautifully write hieroglyphs, is considered the pinnacle of art in China. Most of the sacred texts of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism are handwritten.

Typography has evolved since the rule of the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars who published and rewrote classics were traditionally sponsored by the state. Members of the imperial family often took part in academic councils.

Exams

One of the main features of traditional Chinese culture was state exams. They contributed to the education of the educated elite, because a candidate who knew the classical texts well, regardless of social origin, was able to take the rank of official. The latter had a high socio-economic status. People in the humanities — writers, philosophers, scientists — were first-class people in China. The state fully supported them.

Science

China's technological discoveries were as follows:

Other areas of expertise:

• Mathematics was used in architecture and geography . The number pi was calculated accurate to the seventh decimal place by the mathematician Zu Chunzhi in 463 . The decimal number system was used in China from the XIV century BC. e. Mathematicians Zhu Shijie , Yang Hui and Liu Zhusen discovered the " Pascal Triangle " 350 years before Pascal himself drew it.
• Biology has received particular development in the applied sciences - pharmaceuticals and herbology .
• Chinese medicine and surgery was not inferior to Western ones.
• Innovations in the military sphere included crossbows , the development of sights , multiple launch rockets, trebuchet , mustard-based poison gases , bump maps, manned kites , fire bombs and rockets , gunpowder , grenades and early bronze guns.

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