Principality of Catalonia

Origin

Like many other lands on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Catalonia was colonized by the ancient Greeks , who chose for the settlement of Roses . Both the Greek and the Carthaginians interacted with the main Iberian population. After the defeat of Carthage, Catalonia, together with the rest of Spain, became part of the Roman Empire . Tarracon has become one of the main Roman forts on the Iberian Peninsula and the capital of the province of Tarracon Spain .

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, towards the end of the 5th century the Visigoths came to power. Moorish Al-Andalus subjugated territory in the early VIII century, after the conquest of the Visigoth kingdom in 711–718. After the defeat of the troops of the emir Abdu-r-Rahman al-Ghafiki at the Battle of Poitiers , the Franks gradually established control over the former Visigothic territories north of the Pyrenees, which had previously been captured or entered into an alliance with Muslims, in that part of Catalonia, which today is part of France. In 795, Charlemagne created what became known as the Spanish mark — a buffer zone beyond the Septimania region, made up of separate self-governing , which served as a defensive line between the Umayyads of Al-Andalus and the Frankish kingdom .

A special Catalan culture began to form in the Middle Ages, when some of these small kingdoms began to take shape in small counties along the northern outskirts of Catalonia. The counts of Barcelona were Frankish vassals (801–987) and were appointed by the emperor from the Carolingian dynasty, who was then king of the Franks. In the 9th century, the Count of Barcelona, Vifred I the Hairy, made his title hereditary and founded the Barcelona dynasty that ruled Catalonia until the death of its last representative, Martin I, in 1410.

In 987, Count Borrell II refused to recognize the Frankish king Hugo Capet and his new dynasty, and thus effectively removed Barcelona from the Frankish rule ^[4] . During the ninth and tenth centuries, aluers ( Cat. Aloers ) began to predominate in the Catalan counties - peasants who owned privately small family estates - allods who were not bound by formal vassal dependence , did not bear duties and waged consumer agriculture . At the beginning of the 11th century, the Catalan counties underwent a process of feudalization - under pressure from the lords, previously independent peasants entered vassal ties. The middle of the century is characterized by fierce social enmity. The seniors used violence against the peasants, taking advantage of the new military tactics and the recruited well-armed mounted mercenary soldiers. By the end of the century, most of the alueur were turned into vassals ^[5] . During the regency of Ermezinda of Carcassonne, the decay of central authority became apparent. In response to feudal violence, the Catholic Church created sagreres ( cat. Sagreres ) - zones within a radius of 30 steps around the churches, where, under pain of excommunication, violence was forbidden, and also founded the movements of the Peace and Truce of God ^[6] . Abbot Oliba presided at the Council in in 1027 in the county of Roussillon , where the Divine Truce was first proclaimed.

Dynastic Union

In 1137, Count of Barcelona Ramon Berenguer IV married Petronil of Aragon , thus creating a dynastic union between the county of Barcelona with its territories and the kingdom of Aragon. This alliance subsequently formed the basis of the Aragonese crown. During the reign of Ramon Berenguer IV, Lleida and Tortosa were also subjugated.

The battle of Muir (September 12, 1213) and the unexpected defeat of King Pedro II with his vassals and allies - the counts of Toulouse, Commenge and Foix led to the withering of the strong human, cultural and economic ties that existed between the territories of Catalonia and Languedoc ^[7] .

In 1258, the was concluded. Jaime I of Aragon , a descendant of Sunifred and Bello , and thus heir to the Barcelona house, ceded his family rights and possessions in Languedoc and recognized the King of France from the Capetian dynasty Louis IX as heir to the Carolingian dynasty. In exchange, the king of France formally renounced his nominal sovereignty over the Catalan counties ^[8] . De facto independent Catalan counties were recognized as such de jure , however, the agreement meant the irreversibility of the separation of the peoples of Catalonia and Languedoc.

As the coastal territory of the Aragonese crown and thanks to the increasing importance of the port of Barcelona , Catalonia became the main center of royal naval power, and by conquest and trade it helped to expand the influence and power of the crown in Valencia, the Balearic Islands , Sardinia and Sicily.

Catalan Constitutions (1283-1716) and the 15th Century

At the same time, a complex institutional and political system was formed in the Catalan principality, based on the idea of ​​an agreement between the estates of the state and the king. Laws (called constitutions ) required the approval of the Cortes General of Catalonia, one of the first parliamentary bodies in Europe, which forbade the royal government to create legislation unilaterally (starting in 1283) ^[9] . The first Catalan constitutions were adopted by the Catalan Cortes in Barcelona in 1283. The latest constitutions were promulgated by the Cortes in 1705-1706, under the chairmanship of the challenged King Charles III . The collections of constitutions and other rights of Catalonia followed the tradition of Roman codes . These constitutions formed the developed code of rights of all inhabitants of the principality and limited the power of kings.

Originating from the 11th century, the General Cortes of Catalonia is one of the first parliaments in continental Europe. The Cortes consisted of representatives of three classes , and the king was their chairman. The modern parliament of Catalonia is considered the symbolic and historical heir to the former Cortes ^[10] .

In order to collect general taxes, the Cortes of 1359 established a permanent delegation of deputies, called the General Deputation ( Cat. Diputació del General ) and later known as the Generalitat , which gained important political influence in the following centuries.

The 13th century and the beginning of the 14th century were a period of prosperity for the principality. The population increased, and Catalan language and culture expanded to the islands of the Western Mediterranean. In the reign of Pedro III the Great , Sicily was conquered and the invasion of the French crusaders was repulsed. His son and heir Alfonso III conquered Menorca, and the second son of Pedro, Jaime II, conquered Sardinia. Catalonia was the center of the empire. The Catalan company, led by Roger de Flora , consisting of experienced Almogavar mercenaries, veterans of the Sicilian Vespers , was hired by the Byzantine Empire to fight the Turks and defeated them in several battles. After the assassination of Roger de Flora on the orders of the son of the emperor Michael Paleologue (1305), the company avenged the looting of Byzantine territory and, on behalf of King Aragon, occupied the duchies of Athens and Neopatria . Catalan rule in the Greek lands continued until 1390 ^[11] .

Territorial expansion was accompanied by a large increase in Catalan trade, the center of which was Barcelona. A developed trading network stretching across the Mediterranean could compete with those of the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice . In the spirit of this development, institutions such as the and the , one of the first collections of the law of the sea, were created for the legal protection of merchants.

In the second quarter of the 14th century, critical changes took place in Catalonia, marked by a sequence of natural disasters, demographic crises, the stagnation and decline of the Catalan economy, and the growth of social tension. The possessions of the Aragon crown were greatly affected by the Black Death and the later outbreaks of the plague. Between 1347 and 1497, Catalonia lost 37 percent of its population ^[12] .

In 1410, without leaving surviving heirs, Martin I dies. By compromise in the Caspian, Ferdinand from the Castilian house of Trastamar received the Aragonese crown as Ferdinand I of Aragon . During the reign of Juan II, social and political contradictions caused a civil war in Catalonia (1462–1472). In 1493, France formally annexed the counties of Roussillon and Cerdan , which it occupied during the conflict. Under the son of Juan, Ferdinand II, the northern Catalan counties were returned without war, and the Compliance Constitution ( Cat. Constitució de l'Observança ) (1481) was adopted, which established the subordination of the royal authority to the laws approved by the Catalan Cortes ^{[13] [14]} . After decades of confrontation by (1486), serfs were freed from most feudal abuses in exchange for ransom ^[15] .

Catalonia in the early New Time

Бракосочетание Изабеллы I Кастильской и Фердинанда II Арагонского в 1469 году объединило два из трёх главных христианских королевств на Иберийском полуострове, а после вторжения Фердинанда II в Наварру в 1512 году было присоединено и королевство Наварра .

Это вызвало усиление уже существовавшей в умах этих королей концепции Испании ^[16] , состоящей из бывшей Арагонской короны, Кастилии, и аннексированной Кастилией в 1515 году Наварры. В 1492 году была завоевана последняя остававшаяся часть Аль-Андалуса вокруг Гранады, и началось испанское завоевание Америки . Политическое влияние стало перемещаться из Арагона в сторону Кастилии и, впоследствии, от Кастилии к Испанской Империи , которая вступала в частые войны в Европе в борьбе за мировое господство. В 1516 году Карл I стал первым королём, который правил коронами Кастилии и Арагона одновременно как своими собственными владениями. После смерти своего деда Максимилиана I , императора Священной Римской империи, он был выбран императором Священной Римской империи под именем Карла V в 1519 году ^[17] . Правление Карла V было относительно гармоничным периодом, и Каталония в целом приняла новое устройство Испании, несмотря на падение собственной значимости.

В течение длительного времени Каталония, как часть бывшей Арагонской короны, продолжала сохранять собственные законы и конституции, но их значение постепенно ослабевало в процессе перехода от управляемой по договорам территории к централизованной модели, а также в результате стремления королей извлечь из территорий как можно больше ресурсов. В конце концов особые каталонские права были уничтожены в результате поражения в Войне за Испанское наследство.

В два последующих века Каталония обычно находила себя на проигравшей стороне в серии войн, которые неуклонно вели ко всё большей централизации власти в Испании. Несмотря на это, между XVI и XVIII веками роль политического сообщества в местных делах и общем управлении страной была увеличена, в то время как королевская власть оставалось относительно ограниченной, особенно после последних двух Кортесов (1701—1702 и 1705—1706). Противоречия между конституционными каталонскими учреждениями и всё более централизованной монархией, вместе с другими факторами, такими как экономический кризис, присутствие солдат и крестьянские восстания вызвали различные конфликты, такие как Каталонское восстание, также известная как Война жнецов (1640—1652), в контексте франко-испанской войны 1635—1659. During this war, Catalonia, led by the chairman of the Generalitat Pau Claris , in 1641 declared itself an independent republic under the French protectorate, and then a princedom as part of the French monarchy ^[18] , but the Catalans were defeated and reintroduced into Spain in 1652 ^[19] .

In 1659, after Philip IV signed the Pirinean world, the mosquitoes Roussillon, Conflans , Walespier and part of Cerdany, now known as French Cerdan , were transferred to France ^[20] . In recent times, this territory has become designated by nationalist parties in Catalonia as Northern Catalonia , part of the Catalan-speaking territories known as the Catalan lands .

Catalan institutions in this territory were suppressed, and the use of the Catalan language in public affairs was prohibited. Today, this region is administratively part of the French department of the Eastern Pyrenees .

In the last decades of the 17th century, during the reign of the last king of the Spanish king from the Habsburg dynasty, Charles II , despite the intermittent conflict between Spain and France, the population increased to about 500 thousand people ^[21] , and the Catalan economy recovered. This economic boom was boosted by wine exports to England and the Netherlands , countries that were drawn into the Nine Years War against France and, as a result, could not trade wine with France. These new trade relations have prompted many Catalans to look at England and, especially, the Netherlands, as political and economic models for Catalonia.

At the end of the Spanish Succession War, during which the Catalans and their army, along with other parts of the Aragonese crown, supported Archduke Charles's unsuccessful claim to the Spanish throne as Charles III, defeating the bourbon Duke of Anjou, now Philip V, after a long siege, occupied the capital of Catalonia 11 September 1714, and in 1716 signed the Nueva Planta decrees, which upravzdnili Aragonese crown, and all of the remaining Catalan institutions and laws (except civil law) and banned the use of administrative Catalans th language ^[22] .

Following the Nueva Planta Decrees

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, despite military occupation, new high taxes, and the political economy of the Bourbon house, Catalonia, under Spanish rule (now as a province), continued the process of proto-industrialization. At the end of the century, some help was given to the beginning of open trade with America and the protectionist policies of the Spanish government (although the policies of the Spanish government at that time changed many times between the preference for protectionism and free trade ). Thus continued the growth of the Catalan economy since the end of the 17th century, and Catalonia became the center of Spanish industrialization . Catalonia is still one of the most industrialized parts of Spain, together with Madrid and the Basque Country . In 1834, by decree of Minister Javier de Burgos, all of Spain was organized in the province, and Catalonia was divided into 4 separate provinces without a general government.

Several times during the first third of the 20th century, Catalonia gained and lost varying degrees of autonomy. After the announcement of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931, Catalonia restored the Generalitat as an institution of self-government, but as in most regions of Spain, Catalan autonomy and culture were crushed to an unprecedented degree after the defeat of the Second Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), which led to Francisco Franco authorities. After a short period of general recovery, the public use of the Catalan language was again banned.

The Franco era ended with the death of Franco in 1975. In the subsequent transition of Spain to democracy, Catalonia restored cultural and political autonomy. She became one of the autonomous communities of Spain. In comparison, Northern Catalonia in France does not have autonomy.

Institutions

• The Cortes General of Catalonia ( Cat. Cort General de Catalunya ) or The Catalan Cortes ( Cat. Corts Catalanes ): The parliamentary body and principal institution of the Principality, created in the 13th century. The Cortes convened and held under the chairmanship of the king, consisted of three classes, adopted legislation and decisions on monetary donations to the crown. The Cortes also served as the council of the monarch and the judiciary during the sessions.
• General Deputation ( Cat. Diputació del General ) or Generalitat of Catalonia ( Cat. Generalitat de Catalunya ): a permanent council of deputies, created in 1359 by the Cortes to collect general taxes, which later received political influence and prosecution duties, and became the most important Catalan institution in the early modern times.
• Council of the Hundred Barcelona ( Cat. Consell de Cent de Barcelona ): The establishment of the city government of Barcelona, ​​created during the reign of Jaime I. Municipal authority lay on five and then six advisers, headed by the Head Advisor ( Cat. Conseller en cap ), and elected by the Council out of a hundred persons ( jurats ).
• Royal Audience and the Royal Council of Catalonia ( Cat. Reial Audiència i Reial Consell de Catalunya ): Supreme Court of Catalonia and the seat of government. The members of the institution were chosen by the king, and during the absence of the king and vice-king, the Chancellor ( Cat. Canceller ) presided over it.
• The meeting of the three communities ( Cat. Conferència dels Tres Comuns ): a general meeting of the most active institutions of the Catalan constitutional system of the XVII and XVIII centuries - the General Deputation, the Military States and the Council of the Hundred, to discuss the political problems of the principality.
• General states ( Cat. Junta de Braços ): Emergency Council of the Generalitat, composed of some members of the Cortes and carrying out their work, but without formal legislative power.
• Tribunal of Contractions ( Cat. Tribunal de Contrafaccions ): A court created by the Cortes in 1701–1702 to enforce the constitution, and to investigate and prosecute any action (including that committed by the king or his servants) that is contrary to Catalan law. Its members were elected in equal proportion by the country's institutions and the king. This institution was an important achievement in guaranteeing personal and civil rights, even in a European context ^[23] .

Legislation

• Barcelona Customs ( Cat. Usatges de Barcelona ): A collection of customs and laws based on the Roman and Visigothic law of the county of Barcelona, ​​applied in practice throughout the Principality, and which formed the basis of the Catalan constitutions.
• Constitutions of Catalonia ( Cat. Constitucions de Catalunya ): laws declared by the king and approved by the Catalan Cortes. They had an advantage over other legal rules and could be canceled only by the cortes themselves.
• Heads of Cortes ( Cat. Capítols de Cort ): laws declared by the Cortes and approved by the king.
• Acts of the Cortes ( Cat. Actes de Cort ): secondary legislative and other rules and decrees declared by the Cortes, which did not require the formal approval of the king.

Vegeries

Vegeria ( Cat. Vegueria ) was a territorial entity in Catalonia led by a veger ( Cat. Veguer , lat. Vigerius ). The origins of the veggies come from the Carolingian empire, when on the lands of the Spanish brand, vicars were assigned to subordinate to the counts ( lat. Vicarii , in singular lat. Vicarius ). The vicar's office was the vicar ( lat. Vicariatus ), and the vicar was its territory. All these Latin terms of the Carolingian administration in the Catalan language evolved, while they disappeared in the rest of Europe.

Veger was appointed king and was accountable to him. He was the military commander of his vegeria (and thus the custodian of state-owned castles), the chief judge and responsible for public finances in the same field. Over time, the functions of veger became more and more concentrated around the judiciary. With him were the Cortes of veger ( Cat. Cort del veguer ) or the Cortes of vegeria ( Cat. Cort de la vegueria ) with their own seal. The Cortes had power in all matters except those relating to the feudal aristocracy. They usually examined petitions concerning royal, civil, and criminal matters. However, veger also retained some military functions: he was the commander of the militia and the manager of royal castles. His job was to maintain law and order and maintain royal peace: in many ways, his position was similar to that of a sheriff in England .

Some larger veggies included one or more sub-vegeria ( cat. Sotsvegueria ), which had a significant degree of autonomy. At the end of the 12th century, there were twelve veterinas in Catalonia. At the end of the reign of Pedro III the Great (1285), there were seventeen of them, and during Jaime II the Fair - twenty-one. After the French annexation of the veterinarians Perpignan and Villefranche de Conflans in 1659, Catalonia was divided into 15 vegerinas, 9 sub-vegetations and one special district of Val d'Aran . Such an administrative division was valid until 1716, when it was replaced by the Castilian .

As a state under royal sovereignty, Catalonia, like other political entities of its time, did not have its own flag or coat of arms in the modern sense. However, many royal and other symbols were used to denote the Principality and its institutions.

The counts of Barcelona were usually considered princeps or primus inter pares (“first among equals”) other counts of the Spanish mark, both because of their military and economic strength, and because of the supremacy of Barcelona over other cities.

Accordingly, in the act of consecration of the Barcelona Cathedral (1058), the Count of Barcelona Ramon Berenguer I is called the “Prince of Barcelona, ​​the Count of Girona and the Marquis of Ozone ” ( princeps Barchinonensis, comes Gerundensis, marchio Ausonensis ). There are also several references to Prince in various sections of Barcelona Customs, a collection of laws that governed the country from the early 11th century. The custom of 65 Cortes in 1064 calls principatus a group of counties of Barcelona, ​​Girona and Osona, all of which were ruled by the counts of Barcelona ^[24] .

The first mention of Principatus Cathaloniae is contained in the convocation of the Cortes in Perpignan in 1350, where Pedro IV of Aragon and III of Barcelona presided. The purpose of this was to indicate that the territory in which the laws of these Cortes are in effect was not a kingdom, but an expanded territory under the rule of the Count of Barcelona, ​​who was also the king of Aragon, as shown in the Acts of the General Cortes of the Aragon Crown 1362-1363 . However, it seems that an earlier mention, in a more informal context, is present in the chronicles of Ramon Muntaner .

When the counties of Barcelona and Cortes came under the jurisdiction of more counties, such as the county of Urhel , the name "Catalonia", which included several counties under different names, including the county of Barcelona, ​​began to be used to designate the entire subject area as a whole. The terms Catalonia and catalans were commonly used in relation to the territory in northeastern Spain and the western Mediterranean France, and their inhabitants, and not only for the county of Barcelona, ​​at least from the beginning of the XII century, as can be seen from the earliest written references to these names in Liber maiolichinus (about 1117-1125).

In 1931, republican movements preferred to abandon the term because of its historical connection with the monarchy , however, it continued to be used by pancatalists to distinguish Catalonia from other “Catalan lands” ^[1] . Today the term “ Principality” is used to refer to the territories of the Autonomous Community, and sometimes it also includes Andorra, “Northern Catalonia” and the part of Aragon adjacent to Catalonia ^[25] , although the term is not used in the Charter of Catalan Autonomy.

Catalonia is the original core of Catalan-speaking territories. Catalan shares similarities with the Romance languages ​​of Iberia and the Gallo-Romance languages ​​in southern France. It is considered by some part of linguists to be the Ibero-Romance language, while the majority classifies it as Gallo-Roman , such as French and Occitan , which diverged from Catalan between the XI and XIV centuries ^[26] .

By the 9th century, Catalan developed from vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern tip of the Pyrenees. Since the VIII century, the Catalan counts expanded their territories to the south and west, conquering the territories occupied by Muslims and bringing their own language with them ^[27] . In the 11th century, feudal documents written in medieval Latin began to show features of Catalan. Towards the end of XI, documents begin to appear, written entirely or mostly in Catalan, such as Greuges de Guitard Isarn (c. 1080–1095) or Jurament de pau i treva del comte Pere Ramon de Pallars Jussà al bisbe d'Urgell (1098) ^{[27 ]} .

The Catalan language was experiencing a golden age in the late Middle Ages, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural fullness, and with the inclusion of new lands in the possession of the Aragon crown spread territorially ^[27] . Examples include the work of the Malorca Raimund Lullius (1232–1315), the (XIII – XIV centuries) and the Valencian school of poetry, culminating in Ausias Mark (1397–1459). Catalan has become the language of the Kingdom of Mallorca, as well as the main language of the Kingdom of Valencia, especially in coastal regions. It also spread to Sardinia and was used as an administrative language in Sicily and Athens. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the Catalan language was present throughout the Mediterranean and was one of the first bases of the lingua franca ^[28] .

Guided by the notion that political greatness is interconnected with linguistic consolidation, the Royal Council promoted promoted a highly standardized language. By the 15th century, the city of Valencia became a center of social and cultural development. The chivalrous novel of Juanot Marturel Tyrant Bely (1490) shows the transition from medieval values ​​to the values ​​of the Renaissance , which is also observed in the works of Bernat Metzhe and Andreu Febrere. During this period, Catalan remains one of the “great languages” of medieval Europe. In Catalan, the first book on the Iberian Peninsula was produced by hand typing .

With the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon (1479), the use of Spanish gradually became more prestigious, marking the beginning of the relative decline of the Catalan. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Catalan writer fell under the influence of the Spanish, and the urban and educated classes became predominantly bilingual. With the defeat of the coalition of Habsburg supporters in the War of the Spanish Succession (1714), Spanish replaced Catalan in legal documentation, becoming the administrative and political language of the Principality of Catalonia and the kingdoms of Valencia and Mallorca.

Today, Catalan is one of the three official languages ​​of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as stated in the Charter of Autonomy of Catalonia; the other two are Spanish and Occitan in its Aranian version. Catalan does not have official recognition in Northern Catalonia. Catalan has an official status along with Spanish in the Balearic Islands and in the Valencia community (where it is called Valencia ), as well as Algerian Catalan together with Italian in the city of Alghero and Andorra as the only official language.

• List of Viceroys of Catalonia
• Aragon crown
• Council of Aragon
• Generality of Catalonia
• Catalan lands
• Catalanism

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