Regulatory Development Crisis

L. S. Vygotsky

The foundations of understanding the crisis were laid by L. S. Vygotsky . Development is a philosophical category that is always defined as qualitative change. Quantitative changes are simply the accumulation and buildup of all that is already there. Therefore, human development is determined by qualitative transformations. Vygotsky, relying on the ideas of philosophy, represented human development as an alternation of periods of accumulation and sharp qualitative leaps. L. S. Vygotsky distinguished stable (lytic) and critical periods of development (crises). In lytic ages, certain functions accumulate and build up, and a crisis is a sharp jump in development, a period of qualitative transformations. The main content of critical periods is the restructuring of the social development situation. ^[2] . He was also put forward the postulate that in these periods for a very short time there are sharp and major changes and fractures in the development of the personality of the child ^[2] . The alternation of lytic and critical periods is the basis of the dynamics of age, and are also constructs for building age periodization. ^[2] . By the end of this age, the child becomes a completely different creature. This means that the social situation of development must change ^[2] . This is because the driving forces of the development of the child at any age lead to the destruction of the foundation of development of all age, thus there is a need to annul the social situation of development. So there is a transition of development to the next age stage ^[2] . Contradiction is the driving force of development, therefore, crises are the driving force of development. Crises highlighted by L. S. Vygotsky: ^[2]

• neonatal crisis - separates the embryonic period of development from infancy;
• 1 year crisis - separates infancy from early childhood;
• crisis of 3 years - the transition to preschool age;
• crisis of 7 years - a connecting link between preschool and school age;
• teenage crisis (13 years)

A. N. Leontiev

A.N. Leontyev contributed to the study of crises of mental development. He introduced the concept of lead activity ^[3] . A, N Leont'ev argued that, each stage of development of a child is characterized by a certain, leading at this stage, the attitude of the child to reality. This attitude is realized in leading activities ^[3] .. Thus, the social situation of development is mediated by leading activities . A. N. Leontyev postulates that it is a change in the leading type of activity, that is, the child’s leading relationship to the actual, is a sign of a transition from one stage of development to another ^[3] .

L. I. Bozhovich

L.I. Bozhovich in the periodization of development and the allocation of normative age-related crises made the main emphasis on personality formation. The periodization she proposed is based on such concepts as the “social situation of development” and “neoplasms”. L. I. Bozhovich claims that the neoplasm is included in the affective component and is the bearer of the driving force ^[4] . Therefore, the central neoplasm of the period becomes the starting point for the formation of the personality development of the child of the next age. Proceeding from this, L. I. Bozhovich proposes to consider crises as critical stages of the ontogenetic development of personality ^[4] . Crises arise at the junction of two ages and mean the completion of the previous stage of development and the beginning of the next. The child has new needs that determine the relationship of the child with the surrounding social reality, and thus determine the course of further development, but parents can not always reckon with new formations of the need sphere. This deprivation gives rise to a contradiction, thus, it is possible to assert the existence of crises. L. I. Bozhovich, following L. S. Vygotsky, identifies crises: the 1st year of life, the crisis of the 3rd year of life, the crisis of 7 years, the crisis of adolescence ^[4] .

D. B. Elkonin

Based on a review of the leading activities of each age, D. B. Elkonin comes to the conclusion that there are two systems in which the child develops: “child - a public subject” and “child - a public adult” ^[5] . In the first system, the development of the operational, mental sphere takes place; and in the second - the development of need-motivational, personal sphere. Based on this, he divides each era into two periods. In the first period, the leading activity is activity in one system, and in the second period in another. D. B. Elkonin identified three epochs of development: infancy, childhood and adolescence ^[5] . D. B. Elkonin analyzed the ideas of predecessors (the ideas of P.P. Blonsky about the existence of eras and periods, as well as his ideas of understanding development as a process of qualitative transformations; the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky on critical and lytic ages, A.N. Leontyev and S. Ya. Rubinstein on the driving forces of development and on the dependence of the development of the psyche on leading activities ( M. I. Lisina , L. I. Bozhovich ) and based on this theoretical basis created a periodization of the child’s mental development ^[5] .

Each age is characterized by its social development situation, leading activities and neoplasms. D. B. Elkonin identified epochs and periods of development. Eras include two periods. Transitions between eras and periods are crises. Crises between eras are “big” crises, and between periods are “small” crises ^[5] .

In each age period of development, the leading activity of the child unfolds in one of two systems, the development of the other system is delayed, so in the next period it will become the leading one, so that development proceeds harmoniously. Those moments when this discrepancy takes the greatest value are called crises, that is, the difference in the development of the operational and motivational spheres. This is the law of child development, which D. B. Elkonin called the law of periodicity ^[5] .

Based on the above postulates, D. B. Elkonin compiled a periodization of the development of the child, which is largely similar to the periodization created by L. S. Vygotsky ^[5] :

• The crisis of the newborn
• The era of early childhood (0-3 years)
  • The period of infancy (2-12 months). Crisis is the crisis of the first year of life (small crisis) - when the child begins to walk, gets freedom of movement and there are affectively charged motivating ideas, the collapse of the “great-we”;
  • The period of an early age (1-3 years). The crisis of three years (the “I myself” crisis) is a “big” crisis in which the restructuring of the relationship between a child and an adult takes place in favor of the autonomy of the child.
• Age of childhood
  • The period of preschool age (3-7 years). The crisis is 6-7 years old (“small” crisis), in which there is a loss of childish immediacy, which is the foundation for psychological readiness for school;
  • The period of primary school age (7-11 years): the crisis of 12 years (the "big" crisis), in which there is a restructuring of relations with adults, a special form of self-consciousness is born - a sense of adulthood.
• Age of adolescence:
  • The period of primary school age (12-15 years); 15 years crisis (“small” crisis) in which ego-identity is formed, individual self-awareness is born;
  • The period of older adolescence (15-17 years); the crisis of 17 years (the "big" crisis) - marks the end of the era of adolescence and means entry into adulthood.

The study of adult crises was mainly done by Western psychologists. C. Jung argued that, if the process of socialization was the leading process in childhood, then personality individuation dominates in maturity ^[6] . Normative age-related developmental crises are of a socio-historical cultural nature and arise only when a person has the right and opportunity to choose his own path. In the Middle Ages, the fate of the profession, the family was predetermined, so there was no reason for the midlife crisis ^[7]. Regular adult crises have a number of features ^[7] .

1. They occur less frequently, since the rate of mental development decreases with age.
2. They are not tied to chronological age.
3. Flow more consciously and mainly in the internal plane

The recognized normative age maturity crises are:

1. the crisis of "entry into early adulthood" (17-22 years);
2. crisis of 30 years; midlife crisis (40-45 years);
3. crisis (50-55 years); crisis of cessation of active professional activity and retirement ^[4] . Also, EE Sapogova singles out death as a crisis of individual life, as the last critical event in human life ^[8] .

Normative crises in D. Levinson's research

Daniel Levinson ^[9] conducted a large study on an adult sample; Its participants were 40 men aged 35 to 45 years, selected from various ethnic and professional groups. For several months, these people were engaged in self-observation. In parallel with this, biographies of famous people were studied in order to trace their life path and the moment of transition to adulthood. D. Levinson and his colleagues identified three main stages in the life of men, which are similar to the growth model in women. Each of the stages lasts approximately 15-25 years. D. Levinson paid special attention to the study of the period from 35 to 45 years. Levinson identifies 4 stages of life: the stage of pre-adulthood (0-22 years), the stage of early adulthood (17-45 years), the stage of middle adulthood (40 65 years), the stage of late adulthood (60 onwards). ^[10] . Levinson highlighted transitions:

1. to early adulthood - 17-22 years;
2. transition of the 30th anniversary - 28-33 years;
3. transition of average adulthood - 40-45 years;
4. transition of the 50th anniversary - 50-55 years;
5. transition to late adulthood - 60-65 years.

Transitional periods are stressful, because at this time goals, values ​​and lifestyle are being reviewed and reassessed ^[11]

Development crises occur only in case of difficulties in a person in any of these periods. In male and female samples, the growth model included a critical period at about the age of 30, during doubts, dissatisfaction, when career goals and lifestyle are being revised. Studies have also shown that transitions and crises in women are more associated with events such as the birth of children or their separation from mother than with age ^[10] .

D. Levinson, when considering the crisis of "entry into early adulthood" (17-22 years), identifies two main tasks of this period: separation (separation) from parents and finding their place in an adult society The most important task is to create a "dream" as an ideal model of life personality structure. Hawighurst identified the following developmental goals in adolescence: ^[12]

1. Acceptance of one’s own appearance and the ability to effectively use one’s body, that is, the ability to consciously control one’s body;
2. Assimilation of sexual role;
3. Establishing relationships with peers of both sexes at a more mature level;
4. Gaining emotional independence from parents and other adults;
5. Preparation for a professional career;
6. Preparing for marriage and family life;
7. Formation of socially responsible behavior;
8. Building a system of values ​​and ethical consciousness, which are the guidelines of their own behavior.

The crisis of 30 years occurs when the “Dream” embodied in the life structure exceeds the possibilities of its actual realization ... ”, therefore Levinson calls this crisis“ the crisis of the first debriefing. ”During this period, there is a realization of how few people realized his abilities, how much time and effort has been spent and how little has been achieved. ^[13] The concept of “midlife crisis” was introduced by Levinson. This is a crisis of 40-45 years. “The transition to maturity (about 40 years) is a pronounced regulatory crisis based on th is awareness of the loss of youth and the inevitability of the end " ^[14] . This age period is also called a motivational crisis. The periodization of development imposed by Levinson, this step is called the mid-life transition. Levinson said that the men in the 40-45 years, there is one more reinterpretation life values, when it is discovered that youthful dreams never materialized. ^[13] These same patterns extended to the female sample ^[15] . This reassessment of values ​​takes place in the context of three interconnected worlds: the personal world, the world of the family and the professional world. It is characterized by the adoption of the "death of youth", physical extinction, discovery and study of opportunities.

Normative crises in G. Shihi's research

American scholar G. Shihi was inspired by the ideas of Levinson. Applying the autobiographical method in her research, Shihi was largely confirmed by the data obtained in Levinson's research.

G. Shihi identifies the following periods and crises of adulthood ^[16] .:

1. The crisis of "separation from parental roots" (20-22 years) - the transition to early adulthood. The main tasks of this period are: awareness of life plans, developing an individual, finding yourself, choosing a spouse and creating your own family, specializing and acquiring professional skills, and finalizing yourself as an adult.
2. About 30 years - the transition to middle adulthood. This is the period of highest performance. This is the time of the regulatory crisis of adulthood, which is associated with anxiety about the desired and the cash. The crisis is associated with the correction of the life plan, the creation of a more rational life structure. Man overestimates previous elections.
3. The period after 30 years is “roots and expansion”. This period is associated with the solution of material problems, career advancement, expansion of social ties.
4. The crisis of the middle of life, or the crisis of the 40th anniversary. One of the main characteristics of this crisis is the disorder of the inner world - a change in attitude towards what used to seem important to a person. Also at this stage, there is an acute experience of awareness of the loss of youth.

Levinson argued that the patterns of experiencing critical periods of women and men are the same. G. Shihi showed the specifics of age-related crises of women in contrast to men. G. Shihi also argued that the stages of a wife’s life path are more associated with family life events: marriage, the appearance of children ^[16] .

Regulatory Maturity Crisis

A detailed description of the crisis of maturity is given by B. Livehood. He notes that at about the age of 56 in a person’s life, the Values ​​found, as a rule, are not questioned, but it becomes clear that they have not yet been truly acquired. If you honestly ask yourself what you can take with you through the gates of death from the results of your life, much of what is associated with knowledge, position and experience disappears. a new thunderstorm sweeps in

Development (according to E. Erickson ) is the process of overcoming the psychosocial crises that regularly occur at each age stage. E. Erickson introduces the concept of identity crisis . The essence of the crisis is the choice between alternative development paths. Depending on the choice of path, personal development takes on either a positive or negative orientation. A negative orientation is an obstacle to the formation of personal identity. The periodization of E. Erickson includes 8 successive stages. Each stage is characterized by a crisis ^[17] . Stages of identity development according to E. Erickson:

1. A person faces the first crisis in the first year of his life. The main question that confronts the child is whether to trust this world or not? The most important thing that should happen at the first stage is the emergence of the child’s confidence in the world. It occurs in the presence of a mother nearby, or an adult replacing her, who actively interacts with the child.
2. Autonomy or shame and doubt. From one to three years, a person goes through the next stage of development, the essence of which is the formation of personal independence and opposition to adult education. The child begins to walk, he understands that he has become autonomous to some extent, therefore it is important for him here to defend his independence. He seeks to use the acquired skills (dressing himself, combing his hair, and so on), persistently improving his skills. Children whose independence has been encouraged have more self-confidence. Harsh criticism instills in a child a sense of doubt and guilt. self-doubt, cause feelings of doubt and guilt.
3. Initiative or fault. (3-6 years old). This is a period of active interaction with children, the study of their interpersonal skills and self-organization. Peers appear in a child’s life, roles are distributed. Children learn to take the initiative and act in society. If a child at this age stage manages to show his organizational abilities, then this contributes to the further harmonious development of identity. If the child is criticized, he is pulled, stopped, then the child has a feeling of guilt. Feeling guilty disrupts the process of interacting with others.
4. Self-sufficiency versus self-doubt (6-12 years). During this period, the child learns to learn. This is due to the beginning of school life. The source of the formation of self-sufficiency is now not parents, but teachers and comrades. Encouragement, support of the initiative, contribute to the development of self-confidence and self-reliance. Condemnation of the initiative or excessive criticism from others provokes the emergence of complexes, self-doubt. The feeling of inferiority arising on this basis can lead to unwillingness to learn and gain new knowledge.
5. Ego-identity or a mixture of identity (12-19 years) At this stage, the priority is to build further education, career and personal life. Therefore, questions arise: who am I? What do I want? These and other issues causing a psychological crisis, as a result, lead to the definition of their professional and sexual roles. If a person cannot identify himself, then there will be confusion or a mixture of roles.
6. Intimacy or isolation. (20-25 years old). At this age stage, the ability to love, sacrifice, give, build close relationships develops. If a person for a long time avoids these relationships, then there is a risk of getting used to constant inner loneliness and isolating himself from the outside world.
7. Maturity (26-64 years). Crisis: Productivity or Stagnation. This age period is the time of creating a family, taking on the role of a parent, building and developing a career. The level of self-realization in these vital areas depends on how successful a person will feel throughout life. If previously set goals are not achieved, then the path to improvement may stop. The feeling of own unproductiveness impedes the further course of development.
8. Old age. Crisis: ego-centering or despair. At the age of over 65, an analysis of the lived life takes place. At this time, a person wants to see the fruits of his labors and efforts, realizing himself successful. If a person understands that the past is unproductive, then despair sets in. If the identity crisis at this stage goes smoothly, a person, having gained wisdom, will look into the past with a sense of humility, gratitude, fullness. This will allow approaching old age and the end of life without fear.

• Age periodization
• Psychosocial development
• Psychosexual development
• Periodization of the mental development of D. B. Elkonin
• Yakudosi