W-di

Wu-di was the tenth son of his father Jing-di , his mother Wang Zhi was the emperor's favorite concubine. She was previously married and had a daughter, but the Yang prince Tsang Tu (臧 荼) found it favorable to donate her to the crown prince and divorced her with her husband.

The son was born shortly after Jing-di ascended the throne, he was named Liu Zhi (劉 彘). Emperor Bo's wife did not have children. Initially, Prince Rong, the son of Li's concubine, was appointed heir to the throne. However, Li's concubine was sharp-tempered, and Emperor Piao's sister warned him not to become like Empress Liu-hou . Rong was deprived of his throne, Li went into disfavor and soon died, and Rong committed suicide. The concubine Wang received the status of empress, and Prince Zhi - the heir to the throne. He took the throne at the age of 16.

The young emperor began to contribute to the development of Confucianism. He organized exams, as a result of which 100 young students received high official positions, most of them did not belong to aristocratic families. This custom took root in China, from that moment Confucianism became the official doctrine on which the state rested. Those who wrote the best examination essays received high posts up to the governor or ministerial ^[1]

In the early years of the reign, the Dowager Empress Dow (emperor’s grandmother) and Wang (emperor’s mother) and his mother’s half-brother Tian Feng (田 蚡), who was named Wan-hou, who became the commander in chief, dominated. A struggle broke out between Grandma Dow (a follower of Taoism) and Confucian advisers. In 139 BC e. high Confucian officials Zhao Wan (趙 綰) and Wang Zang (王 臧) were accused of corruption and committed suicide in prison. The emperor could not do anything.

In the future, the emperor began to gradually remove senior officials of the older generation, replacing the young active and talented. At the same time, he severely punished for breaking the laws and corruption, right up to the death penalty. However, he appreciated even the disgraced officials who dared to contradict the emperor.

In 135 BC e. Empress Dow died, the emperor gradually began to take power into his own hands.

The emperor began to show military-diplomatic talents, which led to the expansion of the empire. In 138 BC e. Minhue (in the territory of modern Fujian province ) attacked Donghai (modern Zhejiang ), and Donghai asked for help from Han. The emperor quickly organized a military expedition. Then he also several times responded to calls for help and annexed small states, playing on contradictions and relying on the local aristocracy.

In 133 BC e. as a result of the incident, the peace with the Huns was interrupted.

In 129 BC e. Huns attacked the Shangu area (上 谷, Hebei province). U-Di equipped four warlords with a ten-thousand-strong horse army against the Huns. Three were defeated, Wei Qing managed to organize a trip to the sacred places of the Huns, in 127 BC. e. he occupied the Shofan region (朔方) in the west of Inner Mongolia, which became a springboard for further action against the Huns. In 124 BC e. Wei Qing won a great victory, capturing 15,000 Huns. His nephew Ho in 121 BC e. defeated the Hun princes Xunse (渾邪王) and Sutu (休 屠 王). Wu-di appointed five military leaders to control the occupied Gansu region, which became firmly part of China and became a springboard for further expansion into Xinjiang (西域) and Ferghana .

In 139 BC e. Zhang Qian was sent to the yuezhi state, which was ousted by the Huns from Gansu to the west, in search of military support against the Huns. Zhang was able to escape from the Sünn captivity and reached Samarkand . Han China established diplomatic relations with Yuezhi, Daiyuan ( Kokand ), Kangyu . In 126 BC e. Zhang returned and made a report to the emperor on a successful mission. When the Han strengthened in Gansu, regular communication of ambassadors with Xinjiang began.

The report of Zhang Qian led the emperor to expand the trade and political influence of the Han in the Western countries by expanding the southern trade route: Sichuan - India - Bactria and further west. From different regions of Sichuan, 4 embassies were sent on different roads. But they were all intercepted by the tribes of di (氐), zuo (筰), si (巂) and kunming (昆明). Kunming people killed and robbed the ambassadors; they were very warlike. But the government received information about the kingdom of Danyue (滇 越, now Tengchun Yunnan County). Since merchants from Chengdu illegally transported goods to Danyue , the emperor considered it appropriate to continue to try to establish contact in this direction.

In the southwest, Wu-di set up expeditions against Nanyue , gaining the support of tribal kingdoms. Han Ambassador Tang Meng (唐蒙) brought wealthy gifts to the tribal kings, and the Jiangwei (犍 область) region was established in Sichuan to govern the tribes, but it was difficult to restrain the constant rebellion of the tribes. After Zhang Qian returned from Central Asia, the emperor was presented with a report on the advantages of routes to India and Parthia, the emperor began to seriously consider routes through Yunnan and Sichuan and sent ambassadors to subjugate the states of Elan and Dien (滇, modern Yunnan ).

In the northeast, U-di invaded Korea and established the Tsanhai region (蒼海) there, but could not hold it and retreated in 126 BC. e.

In 119 BC e. Wu-di broke the peace treaty with the Huns, the attack of Generals Wei Qing and Ho Quibing led to a great victory. The Huns were again asked for peace, but Wu-di wanted to make them vassal dependent.

At the same time, the emperor began to promote cruel governors and officials, believing that severe penalties would lead to order.

During this period, U-di began to undertake an active search for immortality, for which he contacted magicians and spellcasters. Searches took place in several directions.

Shamans from Yue’s kingdom demonstrated communication with the dead, they also organized conversations with spirits.

Mages from the kingdom of Qi were engaged in the search for immortals and celestials, organizing sacrifices on the sacred mountains and sea expeditions in search of the island of Penglai , where the immortals live.

Scientists tried to identify favorable moments and interpret signs, attempts were made to reform the calendar.

At times, certain magicians began to enjoy the great confidence of the emperor, he granted them high posts and provided money for expeditions. However, he carefully rechecked their abilities and executed in case of suspicions of quackery.

In his ministry to the spirits, U-di began to imitate the ancient emperor Huang-di , who managed to achieve immortality. He established sacrifices on Taishan Mountain, repeatedly climbed it, often with a small number of satellites. He restored the ancient rituals of worshiping the heavenly spirits in the form in which Juan di supposedly observed them. For spirits, he built several large towers.

In 113 BC e. the emperor held the great sacrificial ceremony Fengshan (封禪) on the Taishan Mountain to the spirits of Heaven and Earth, imitating the ancients, he turned to the spirits with a request for immortality. A large number of temples were built on the mountain for regular sacrifices. The emperor made his last sacrifice in 98 BC. e.

Commenting on the signs, he repeatedly changed the era of government, established a favorable year when the dominant element changed to the element of the Earth, and transferred the beginning of the year. He urged scholars to streamline the annals and calendars, while Sima Qian did significant work.

Prince Liu An , the grandson of the first Han Emperor Liu Bang and the ruler of Huainan Province, as a man of high scholarship and talent, was a long time adviser to the emperor. In 139 BC e. he presented the emperor with a treatise of Huainan-tzu composed by the “eight Huainan sages” at his court, which is especially famous for the chapters of Taoist content. In 122 BC e. Liu An was seized for preparing the coup with his brother Liu Tzu (劉 賜), the ruler of Hengshan Province, sent to prison, where he committed suicide.

From 113 BC e. the emperor became increasingly hardened. He easily dismissed and punished the governors, during his trips around the country many local officials were forced to commit suicide because of the inability to provide food and proper reception of the huge imperial retinue. In search of immortality, he began to give high positions to magicians, for example, Luan Da (欒 大) even received the title of hou and princess as his wife, but was executed for charlatanry.

In 112 BC e. in the kingdom of Nanyue ( Guangdong , Guangxi , north of Vietnam ), a conflict arose that led to the intervention of the Han forces. In the same year, the Usuns, believing in the power of the Han, brought to China the famous Usun horses, which they began to call the "western limit". Subsequently, the Chinese still managed to get the "heavenly horses with bloody sweat" from Davan , these were the best horses known to the Chinese. The emperor wanted to get as many horses as possible and began to send 5-10 large embassies to Davan a year. Far embassies left China for 9 years.

After difficult events in 111 BC. e. Han troops occupied the capital Panyu (番禺, modern Guangzhou ) and annexed the entire territory of the kingdom , dividing it into 9 regions. The emperor did not give up attempts to break the way to India through the southern lands, but the Kunmins killed all the ambassadors.

Then the kingdom of Mingyue (modern Fujian ), fearing an invasion, launched an attack on the Han and partially occupied several cities in Nanyue. In 110 BC e. under pressure from Han, a coup occurred in Nanyue, after which the troops surrendered to the Han empire. The population of the kingdom was resettled in the interior of China.

Since campaigns, sacrifices, the construction of palaces and towers required considerable funds, the Minister of Agriculture San Hongyang (桑弘羊) proposed to establish a state monopoly on salt and iron, which eventually strengthened in China and brought good profits to the treasury.

In 109 BC e. Wu-di made a campaign in Liaodong and Korea against the state of Kochoson and the Joseon Wiman dynasty, won, occupied Pyongyang and divided Kochoson into four areas.

In the same year, an army was sent out, recruited from pardoned criminals led by Guo Chang (郭昌) and Wei Guang (衛 廣), they killed several tens of thousands of Kunming, but did not subjugate them, and they again killed the ambassadors. An army was also sent to the kingdom of Dien (east of Yunnan , the king surrendered, he was left the title, and the kingdom was divided into five regions.

In the states of Central Asia, they gradually got tired of the crowded Khan embassies and began to obstruct them. In addition, the Huns became bolder and began to attack caravans.

In 108 BC e. General Zhao Ponu (趙 破 奴) made a trip to Xinjiang (Sulu) and subjugated the kingdom of Lulan north of the Taklamakan and Cheshi desert (modern Turpan ).

In 105 BC e. the emperor gave his wife Usun the king of Kunmo (昆莫) the state of Usun in the basin of Lake Issyk-Kul to a princess from a distant branch of the imperial family. Family ties led to a long-term alliance with the kingdom of Usun.

Around the same time, relations were established with the Parthian Kingdom (probably with Mithridates II ). The Chinese saw that the Parthians could gather 20,000 soldiers to meet the ambassadors, and there were many cities and people in the country. Ambassadors from Parthia brought to China large eggs (ostrich) and magicians from Mesopotamia or the Middle East.

In 104 BC e. the famous trip to the state of Davan was made (aka Dayan, Kokand , Ferghana). Ruler Dawani Ugua (毋 寡) refused to give the best horses, and ambassadors from U-wan were executed. Advisers believed that 3000 crossbowmen would be enough to conquer Davani. The emperor sent General Li Guangli (李廣利) to Davan, troops (6,000 allied cavalry and several tens of thousands of infantry from the pardoned criminals) who were not provided with food, were deprived. The army, which lost 9/10, remained in Dunhuang, and U-di received orders to execute anyone who tried to return to China. On reflection, U-di sent 60,000 people to Dunhuang, not including porters and others. For starters, they destroyed the city of Luntou. In 102 BC e. Li with 30,000 survivors besieged Davan, cut off the city from water supply, diverting the river. The field army led by Jiang could not stand the shelling of the Chinese. The situation on both sides was difficult. The Cancunites, who stood nearby, could come to the aid of the Davans. The Davans killed Ugua and agreed to betray the horses if the Han went. Li Guangli accepted these magnificent horses: the best a few dozen, the good 3000. The provisions for the army were also delivered. Meizai (昧 蔡), a Han supporter, became King of Davani. This victory led the rulers of Xinjiang to submit to China.

Wu-di spent enormous amounts of money to gain the favor of the rulers of distant lands. For ambassadors poured lakes of wine and made trees with leaves of meat, feasts and holidays did not know the end. For treating the ambassadors, Central Asian grapes were planted around the palaces, and alfalfa was used to feed horses. The Chinese were amazed at the commercial dexterity of guests from Western countries and the influence on them of women who enjoyed a certain freedom and had a huge influence on husbands. At the same time, they were more afraid of the Huns than the Han, and therefore they needed everything from the Huns by letter from the Chanyu, and the Hans had to bargain for every little thing.

Relations with the Huns developed with varying success. During the campaign to Davan in 103 BC. e. the Huns were captured by the army of commander Zhao Pong, but after the events in Ferghana, the Huns were frightened and began to negotiate. Negotiations broke, the Chinese ambassadors were suspected of conspiracy. In 99 BC e. another unsuccessful expedition was organized against the Huns, at which time one of the military commanders Li Lin was executed by denunciation, the historian Sima Qian tried to intervene for him, but was subjected to punishment - castration.

In 106 BC e. the emperor started a change in the administrative division of the empire, 13 prefectures were created ( zhou , 州), later governors were introduced. The chiefs of the prefectures in the new position should be replaced in order to stop corruption.

In 104 BC e. Wu-Wan built the magnificent Jianzhang Palace (建 章 宮), also designed to invoke spirits.

In 100 BC e. under the yoke of taxes on military campaigns and luxurious construction, empire riots swept through the empire. The emperor issued a decree according to which officials were responsible for riots with their lives. As a result, administrators began to hide peasant riots instead of fighting them.

In 99 BC e. Hun Prince Dzhehe (介 和 王) joined the Han side and was granted the title of Kailin-hou (開 陵侯). U-di sent him on a campaign against Chesh with troops from Loulan . But the Western Chjuki-Prince Hunnu made a meeting with several thousand cavalry and the Chinese turned back.

The emperor began to develop paranoia . In 96 BC e. the witch hunt began. Based on dreams, hallucinations and fortune-telling, the emperor began to suspect his associates, to conduct inquiries and cruelly execute. On suspicion of using magic, many senior officials were executed, along with all their clans. The first trial began against the senior son-in-law of the emperor Gunsun He (公孫 賀), who served as prime minister, and his son Gunsun Jingsheng (公孫 敬 聲), the son was accused of corruption. The whole clan was executed. The two elder sisters of Crown Prince Tszyu, Yaoshi (陽 石 公主) and Zhui (諸 邑 公主) and cousin Wei Kang (衛 伉) for various sins and for using magic were executed in 91 BC. e.

In 94 BC e. Wu-Wang had a son, Liu Fulin, who later became Emperor Zhao-di . The son was born by the beloved concubine Zhao, when Wu was 62 years old, the gestation period lasted 14 months, as at the birth of the legendary emperor Yao . There were rumors that the emperor wants to make Fulin an heir, which reached the ears of Tszyu, who was then the heir from Empress Wei.

On the other hand, secret police chief Jiang Chun (江 充) and harem chief eunuch Su Wen (蘇 文) were preparing incriminating materials against Prince Liu Ju , as they already had experience in witch hunting. They threw him dolls for witchcraft and texts with magical inscriptions. Having learned about the accusations, Prince Ju came to Jiang, accused him of intrigue and personally killed him, Su managed to escape.

Upon learning of this, the emperor sent a messenger to Prince Tszyu, but the messenger did not go to Chang'an, but returned, falsely declaring that Prince Liu Ju had raised a rebellion. Prime Minister Liu Qiumao (劉 屈 犛) received orders to gather troops and crush the riot.

After five days of street battles, Prince Ju felt that his father did not support him and defeat was near, and fled. His family, except for the month-old Liu Bingyi , was captured and killed, Empress Wei committed suicide.

Prince Ju was on the run, lived for some time in a peasant's house, but then was caught and committed suicide, his sons were killed by soldiers, but one year old son Liu Bingyi was taken into custody and after many years became emperor Xuan-di .

In subsequent years, the witch hunt continued, its victims were Prime Minister Liu Qiumao and General Li Guangli , who defeated the Huns, fabricated the case by Guo Jean (郭 穰). In an attempt to earn the emperor’s favor, General Lee launched a risky attack on the Hun, but the attack was unsuccessful and Li Guangli went over to the Hun. The genus of both was destroyed on suspicion of using magic.

Han policy in the Western Territory ( Siyuy ) brought huge costs to the empire, but did not lead to the creation of a reliable anti-Hunnic coalition. San Hunyan (桑弘羊), the commander of the Chinese forces in Siyu, proposed to the emperor an extensive project for the gradual colonization of the Siyu by the Chinese up to Usun , in order to transfer the Chinese garrisons to self-sufficiency, subject to the expansion of trade with the local principalities. In response, U-di repented of excessive military expeditions to Siyu, trust in magic and fortune-telling (Li Guangli was supposed to give a hun battle at Mount Fushan at the direction of the fortunetellers), and exhaustion of Chinese resources. Chengxiang Cheng Quanqui (車 千秋) was entrusted with the task of rebuilding the economy.

In 89 BC e. the emperor began to regret what he had done, especially he grieved over his son Tszyu and executed the scammer Su and the Jiang family, built an altar in memory of his son, and also publicly apologized to the whole people for his previous mistakes. The emperor stopped the war and the struggle for the expansion of the kingdom and seriously engaged in the development of agriculture.

Around the same time, the emperor sent Hou Man Tuna (莽 通) with 40,000 horsemen against the Huns through northern Cheshi . And the Hunnic prince (in the service of Han) Kailin-hou made troops from Loulan , Weili, and 6 small principalities against Chesha so that the Cheshists would not help the Huns. Man Tun surrounded the Cheshes and the prince decided to surrender to the Emperor’s mercy

In 88 BC e. the emperor became seriously ill, and the problem of succession to the throne arose. He decided that the youngest son Fulin would be the most suitable heir, and appointed Ho Guang as the future regent, recognizing him as honest and talented. He executed the mother of Fulin, the concubine of Zhao, so that the story of the Dowager Empress Liu-hou would not be repeated. He also appointed two additional co-regents. In 87 BC e. the emperor died after appointing Fulin as heir to the throne, who ruled 13 years under the title Zhao-di .

After the death of the emperor, Ho Guang decided that the concubine Li should follow him. They were buried in the "Chinese pyramid" in Maolin ( Chinese 茂陵 ), the pyramid has survived to the present.

Historians highly appreciate the period of U-di's reign - they recognize the expansion of the territory, the establishment of many laws, which were then supported for many years, the strengthening of Confucianism. An empire superior to Rome was created. Significant successes were achieved in undermining the Huns , allies were found in the west, and the Chinese colonization of Siyu began . Rhino horns and tortoise shells from Hainan , betel and bamboo canes from the border areas of Guizhou and Sichuan, "heavenly horses" and grapes from Daiyuan and Parthia were brought to the empire. The female chambers of the palace were filled with pearls, products from tortoise shell, rhino horns, feathers of blue birds. In the stables there were horses of the best breeds, they brought elephants and lions, large dogs, ostrich eggs. In general, wonders from all over the known world. Kunming , a palace in Chanan, was built, where for foreign ambassadors made trees of meat and ponds of wine.

On the other hand, Wu-di is criticized for the extravagance, tyranny, and exploitation of the population, on whose shoulders his projects laid a heavy burden. Distillery, salt mining and iron smelting was monopolized by the state, boats, cattle, carts were taxed. A silver coin was introduced, and even “Pibi” (皮 币) - credit cards for deer skin. Therefore, it is compared with Qin Shihuang ^[3] . He relied on legism , controlling through cruel punishments. Almost all the prime ministers under Wu Di were executed or committed suicide or were killed after their resignation. Castration was also often used as a punishment.

1. Jianyuan (建元 jiàn yuán) 140 BC e. - 135 BC e.
2. Yuanguan (元 光 yuán guāng) 134 BC e. - 129 BC e.
3. Yuanshu (元朔 yuán shuò) 128 BC e. - 123 year BC e.
4. Ань yuán shòu 122 BC e. - 117 BC e.
5. Yuanding (元鼎 yuán dĭng) 116 BC e. - 111 year BC e.
6. Yuanfeng (元 封 yuán fēng) 110 BC e. - 105 BC e.
7. Taichu (太初 tài chū) 104 BC e. - 101 year BC e.
8. Tianhan (天 漢 tiān hàn) 100 BC e. - 97 BC e.
9. Taishi (太 始 tài shĭ) 96 BC e. - 93 year BC e.
10. Zhenhe (征 和 zhēng hé) 92 BC e. - 89 BC e.
11. Houyuan (後 元 hòu yuán) 88 BC e. - 87 BC e.

• Sima Qian . Historical notes. Translation by R.V. Vyatkin. v.2, chapter 12
• Han U-di's Official Biography in " Hanshu " ( Chinese )
• Zizhi Tongjian by Sima Guang , Modern Chinese Edition edited by Bo Yang (Taipei, 1982-1989).
• Han Ji by Xun Yue
• W. Scott Morton, W. Scott. China: "Its History and Culture". - ISBN ISBN 0-07-043424-7 .