Types of propaganda by Jacques Elluly

In the book, Jacques Ellul gives the following definition of propaganda:

“Propaganda is a set of methods used by an organized group that wants to achieve active or passive participation in their actions of a mass of individuals united by psychological manipulations and incorporated into the organization.” ^[one]

In addition, in his work, the French philosopher presented original ideas that had not previously been expressed by other researchers. Thus, he believed that propaganda was necessary for democratic systems , not totalitarian ones , since the latter used different methods of manipulating society. According to Ellul, the main goal of the propagandist is to create the illusion of the absence of any influence, and this can be achieved with the help of total propaganda:

“In order to be effective, propaganda cannot be carried away by particulars — and not only because it will take too long to win people to one’s side, but also for this reason: it is very difficult to form the views of an isolated individual. Propaganda ends where regular dialogue begins. ” ^[2]

Jacques Elloule also says that science plays a big role in propaganda: the existence of propaganda is determined by the context of the modern scientific system. The “scientific” nature of propaganda means that it is closely connected with sociology and psychology . In addition, the French sociologist expresses the idea that modern propaganda works with the crowd and the individual at the same time, which does not lead to the formation of opinions, but directly to concrete actions. In classical propaganda models, propaganda was thought to be aimed at forming opinions.

“If the classic, but outdated view of propaganda insists on defining it as a person’s commitment to orthodoxy , then modern propaganda, on the contrary, seeks orthopraxia - actions, by themselves, and not because of the value judgments of the acting person that directly leads to the goal, not which is conscious for the individual, but considered as such a propagandist. He knows what the goal is to be achieved and what actions must be performed, so he alternates the variety of tools with which the desired action is provided. ” ^[one]

Political and Sociological

Political

Political propaganda includes the influence technologies used by the government, party, and administration with the intention of changing the behavior of society. The context and goals of such propaganda are political in nature. Goals are determined by the government, party, administration or pressure group. The methods of political propaganda are focused on a specific result. There are two forms of political propaganda: tactical and strategic. Tactical propaganda aims to produce immediate results within a short period. Strategic political propaganda establishes a general line and procedure for organizing campaigns. As an example, Jacques Ellul cites Stalinist and Hitler propaganda.

Sociological

Jacques Ellul introduces a new concept of "sociological" propaganda. The radius of influence of sociological propaganda is much wider than political propaganda. Also, this type of propaganda is less tangible. This propaganda is aimed at influencing as many personalities as possible and imposing their lifestyle on them. This propaganda does not form opinion and behavior, but seeks to change the model of culture and create a new way of life and customs. Ellul argues that, because of her intangibility, she does not make the impression of propaganda. Among the carriers of sociological propaganda, he distinguishes media, advertising, cinema, technology and education. The author argues that in the field of sociological propaganda, the United States and China are most successful. The positive portrayal of the American lifestyle in popular American films forms a conviction of the benefits of the American system.

Vertical-Horizontal

Vertical propaganda is a classic type of propaganda where there is a “tip” that spreads propaganda from top to bottom through the media . Horizontal propaganda is realized in a group, there is no “top-down” movement and all members of the group are equal in front of each other. There is a certain similarity between political-sociological and vertical-horizontal propaganda. But in the first division, the emphasis is on the types of media, when social institutions are also taken for them. The second division emphasizes the direction of the movement of communication in which hierarchy arises.

Rational-Irrational

Irrational propaganda is aimed at emotional pressure on the individual: his feelings and emotions. But at the same time, there is rational propaganda, which is based on specific facts, graphs, videos, etc. (which is rational argumentation), and is aimed at persuasion. Usually propaganda combines the rational and the irrational. In order to justify his behavior, it is important for the modern individual to know that when he acts, he obeys reasonable arguments. The challenge is to create an irrational response based on rational and factual elements that will resonate for a long time after the facts have been forgotten.

Propaganda-Integration

Propaganda is visible propaganda, which is aimed at inducing action at the moment. It is effective, but short-term. An example is the propaganda of an opposition party against the existing government, where the party, using a sense of hatred for the current system. Another example is revolutionary propaganda. If revolutionaries came to power, their propaganda propaganda is replaced by integration propaganda. This propaganda creates a general mood, aimed at involving a person in the system. This type of propaganda is observed in developed countries, where a citizen is required not only to vote for someone, but to adopt patterns of behavior. While propaganda propaganda is destructive, integration propaganda is aimed at stabilizing the social system.

In his work “Return to the Brave New World,” Aldous Huxley also talks about dividing propaganda into rational and irrational ^[3] . According to Huxley, rational propaganda encourages action, and it benefits both the subject and the object of propaganda. At the same time, irrational propaganda does not bring benefits, and only appeals to emotions and feelings.

Many researchers have written that Jacques Ellul made a valuable contribution to the study of such a phenomenon as propaganda. Thus, Randy Kluver, a political communications researcher, in his article “Contributions of Jacques Ellul's Propaganda to Teaching and Research in Rhetorical Theory” says that Jacques Ellul’s book should be included in the list of compulsory literature for those who study the phenomenon of propaganda. Clover argues that “Propaganda” is an important contribution to our understanding of the impact of propaganda on social life and politics ^[4] .

Sociologist Andre Vitali in the article “Actuality Jacques Ellul: communication in the context of a technological society ” (“Actualité de Jacques Ellul: la communication dans le contexte d'une société technicienne”) ^[5] suggests that the work of Ellul still causes great interest, since it does not limit the phenomenon of propaganda to the political sphere. The difference between political propaganda and sociological propaganda is important; his approach to the analysis of the phenomenon makes it possible to follow the development of propaganda and better understand the current reality.

A. Belousov in a work devoted to the study of the phenomenon of sociological propaganda, said that Jacques Ellul, highlighting sociological propaganda in a separate category more than 50 years ago, thereby emphasizing the complexity of such a phenomenon as propaganda. It is much more complicated than it seems to us, and can take different forms, and it is very difficult at times to recognize it ^[6] .

1. Jacques Ellul. Propagande. - Economica. - Paris, 1962, nlle éd. 1990.
2. Jacques Ellul. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes (Neopr.) . - Vintage Books. - New York, 1973. - ISBN 978-0-394-71874-3 .
3. Belousov A. B. What is sociological propaganda? // Monitoring public opinion: Economic and social changes. - 2018. - No. 3 . - S. 110—122 .
4. Belousov A. B. “Propaganda” by Jacques Ellule // Free Thought. - 2010. - No. 4 .
5. George Pocheptsov. Information warfare. A new policy tool . - Litres. - 2018 .-- S. 328. - ISBN 9785457825598 .