Body type

Among the body sizes are distinguished total (from lat. Totalis - whole, whole, complete) and partial (from lat. Pars - part). Total (general) body sizes are the main indicators of a person’s physical development . These include length and body weight, as well as chest circumference. Partial (partial) body sizes are terms of total size and characterize the size of individual parts of the body. Body dimensions are determined by anthropometric examinations .

Most anthropometric indicators have significant individual fluctuations. Total body size depends on its length and weight, chest circumference. The proportions of the body are determined by the ratio of the size of the trunk, limbs and their segments. Body dimensions (along with other parameters characterizing physical development) are important parameters of sports selection and sports career. For example, to achieve high sports results in basketball, high growth and long limbs are of great importance. At the same time, it’s not uncommon for those athletes whose somatotype differs from the best for this sport to achieve great success. In such cases, the influence of many factors is affected, and in the first place, such as the level of physical, technical, tactical and volitional training of athletes.

With the same body length, the values ​​of its individual parts in different individuals can be different. These differences are expressed both in absolute sizes and in relative values. By the proportions of the body we mean the ratio of the sizes of individual parts of the body (trunk, limbs and their segments). Typically, the dimensions of individual parts of the body are considered in relation to the length of the body or are expressed as a percentage of the length of the body or the length of the body. To characterize the proportions of the body, the most important are the relative values ​​of the length of the legs and the width of the shoulders.

Indexes and types of body proportions

Since the proportions of the body denote the ratio of the sizes of its various parts, then, of course, the relative dimensions of the trunk, limbs, etc. are not important for their characteristics. The oldest, but most common, method for establishing the ratio of sizes is the index method, which consists of in that one size (smaller) is defined as a percentage of another (larger) size. The most common method for characterizing body proportions is to calculate the ratio of limb length and shoulder width to total body length. According to the ratios of these sizes, three main types of body proportions are usually distinguished: 1) brachymorphic, which is characterized by a wide trunk and short limbs, 2) dolichomorphic, characterized by inverse ratios (narrow trunk and long limbs) in M) mesomorphic, occupying an intermediate position between the brachi and dolichomorphic types. Differences between these types are usually expressed using an index system; for example, as a percentage of body length, the width of the shoulders, the width of the pelvis, the length of the body, and the length of the legs are determined. These indices can be used as a means of direct expression of the form and are quite suitable for this purpose ^{[1] [2]} .

Body proportions and human age

Age-related differences in body proportions are well known: a child differs from an adult in relatively short legs, a long body, and a large head (rice). To characterize age-related changes in body proportions, one can express the sizes in children in fractions of the sizes of these sizes in adults, taking them as a unit. The following are data on age-related changes in body proportions in boys (according to Bunak ) ^[3] :

Body proportions and gender differences

Sexual differences are partially related to the difference in body length of men and women, but mainly they are a specific manifestation of sexual dimorphism . Women differ from men in a larger width of the pelvis and a smaller width of the shoulders (relative to body length).

Arm length and leg length as a percentage of body length are approximately the same in both sexes.

If we consider the proportions of the body in men, not differing on average in their growth from women, then the results will be different, namely: such men, on average, will certainly be longer-legged (by index) than other men. This leggy is due to the fact that the correlation of leg length and body length is small and therefore among the selected men with a small body there will be subjects with both short and long legs. Studies have shown that women in the relative length of the legs differ from both men of short stature and men with a small body. A woman is longer than the first, and shorter than the second. Similar results are obtained when women are reduced to the length of the body and the length of the body of men (Table 2). In all calculations, men have a relatively narrower pelvis and wider shoulders than women.

Body proportions and constitutional type

The harmonious proportions of the body is one of the criteria in assessing the state of human health. With imbalances in the structure of the body, we can think about a violation of growth processes and the causes that caused it (endocrine, chromosomal, etc.). Based on the calculation of body proportions in anatomy, three main types of human body structure are distinguished: mesomorphic, brachymorphic, dolichomorphic. The mesomorphic type of physique (normosthenics) includes people whose anatomical features are close to the average parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc.). In people with a brachymorphic body type (hypersthenics), transverse dimensions prevail, their muscles are well developed, and they are not very tall. The heart is located transversely due to the high-standing diaphragm. In brachymorphic, the lungs are shorter and wider, loops of the small intestine are located mainly horizontally. People of the dolichomorphic type of physique (asthenics) are characterized by a predominance of longitudinal sizes, have relatively longer limbs, poorly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, narrow bones. Their diaphragm is lower, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is located almost vertically. In the table. 3 shows the relative sizes of body parts in people of different body types.

Table 3. Body proportions (according to P. N. Bashkirov ^[4] ):

Group differences in body proportions

Kretschmer's typology of man

The specificity of metabolic processes and endocrine reactions is the essence of a functional constitution. The constitution in the broad sense (including genetic, morphological and functional) is of interest because it is considered responsible for the peculiarity of the reactivity of the body. The unequal susceptibility of people of different constitutional types to the action of external and internal factors is considered proven. Currently, there are more than one hundred classifications of the human constitution, based on various signs. Therefore, there are constitutional schemes based on morphological, physiological, embryological, histological, psychological and other criteria. Attempts to classify a person according to body structure, behavioral characteristics, or predisposition to certain diseases dates back to ancient times. In the IV century BC e. the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates for the first time connected the peculiarities of the physique of people with their predisposition to certain diseases. Based on empirical comparisons, he showed that people of short stature, dense, prone to apoplexy shock, people tall and thin - to tuberculosis. However, Hippocrates did not create any classification that distinguishes people by the type of body structure, since his main interest lay in the study of human temperament. Modern psychology still uses the typology of Hippocrates, dividing people into choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. The typology of a person by the German psychopathologist E. Kretschmer (1888-1964), who was convinced that people with a certain type of physique have certain mental characteristics, deserves attention. He developed the following typology of physique:

• Asthenik - (from Greek - weak) is characterized by a weak growth "in thickness" with a larger growth "in length"; he is thin, with thin pale skin, narrow shoulders, a long and flat chest. Has a fragile physique, high growth; seems even higher than it really is ^[5] ; he has thin arms, long lower limbs, an elongated face, a long thin nose ^{[6] [7]} . In pronounced asthenics, there is also a mismatch between an elongated nose and underdevelopment of the lower jaw ^[5] . Asthenic women resemble male asthenics, but they can be not only thin, but also undersized. Pronounced asthenics prematurely age ^[5] .
• A picnic - (from the Greek. - thick, dense) of medium or small stature, with rich adipose tissue, a loose body, a round head on a short neck, with a small broad face. Detects a tendency to obesity.
• Athletic - (from the Greek. - struggle, fight) has good muscles, strong physique, high or medium height, wide shoulder girdle and narrow hips, convex facial bones.

In addition to these types, E. Kretschmer identified another dysplastic type, characterized by a shapeless structure and various deformations of the physique.

Ecto-, Meso-, and Endomorphy

In the west, there are three main types of physique: ectomorphic, mesomorphic and endomorphic. They got these names from the names of three germ layers: the outer - the ectoderm, from which the nervous system, integumentary tissues (skin) and glands are formed; mesoderm, from which the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems are formed; internal - endoderm, from which the digestive tract is formed. It is known that by the end of the third week of development, the human embryo has the form of a three-layer plate, or three-layer shield. In the region of the external germinal leaf, the neural tube is visible, and deeper - the dorsal string, that is, the axial organs of the human embryo appear. The body of the embryo from a flat shield turns into a volumetric one; the ectoderm covers the body of the embryo from all sides. From the ectoderm in the future, the nervous system, the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives, the epithelial lining of the oral cavity, anal part of the rectum, and vagina are formed. The mesoderm gives rise to internal organs (except derivatives of the endoderm), the cardiovascular system, organs of the musculoskeletal system (bones, joints, muscles), and the skin itself. The endoderm, which is inside the body of the human embryo, coagulates into a tube and forms the embryonic germ of the future gut. A narrow opening communicating the embryonic gut with the yolk sac further turns into an umbilical ring. From the endoderm, the epithelium and all the glands of the digestive system and respiratory tract are formed.

Sheldon's somatotyping system

The scientific basis of somatotyping was developed by professor of Harvard University William Sheldon (1898-1977). Following this system, all people according to morphological characteristics are divided into endomorphs, mesomorphs and ectomorphs. A quantitative assessment of each of these three components is determined for each individual individual so that “1” represents the absolute minimum of the severity of this component, and “7” represents the absolute maximum. From a historical point of view, a somatotype is a physique characteristic determined by the system of W. Sheldon, who was the first to suggest in 1940 that there are not discrete physique types, but continuously distributed “components” of physique, the totality of which characterizes physique. Sheldon identified three such components - endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic, each of which is evaluated visually by a qualified specialist in the point system (from 1 to 7 with uniform intervals between points). The set of scores for the three components - the three numbers A-B-C - is called the human somatotype. To facilitate evaluation, Sheldon published an atlas of somatotypes in 1954; according to his method, no measurements were needed - it was enough to have three photographs of a person in the nude: front, side and back, plus the experience of visual assessment. The components of the somatotype are most clearly visible when describing the extreme manifestations:

• Pure endomorph (7-1-1) is characterized by spherical forms, as far as possible for humans. Such an individual has a round head, large belly, weak, flaccid arms and legs, with a lot of fat on the shoulders and hips, but thin wrists and ankles. Such a person with a large amount of subcutaneous fat could be called simply fat if all the profile dimensions of his body (including the chest and pelvis) did not prevail over the transverse ones. With prolonged starvation, he becomes, in the words of Sheldon, simply hungry for an endomorph, but does not come close in terms of either an ectomorph or a mesomorph. This constitution is accompanied to a large extent by excessive fat deposition.

• Pure mesomorph (1-7-1) is a classic Hercules with a predominance of bones and muscles. He has a massive cubic head, broad shoulders and chest, muscular arms and legs. The amount of subcutaneous fat is minimal, the profile dimensions are small.
• Pure ectomorph (1-1-7) is a lanky person. He has a thin, elongated face, a chin pushed back, a high forehead, a narrow chest and abdomen, a narrow heart, thin and long arms and legs. The subcutaneous fat layer is almost absent, the muscles are not developed. Явному эктоморфу совершенно не грозит ожирение .

Большинство людей не относится к крайним вариантам телосложения (эндоморф, мезоморф, эктоморф), в их телосложении в той или иной степени выражены все три компонента, и наиболее обычными соматотипами будут 3-4-4, 4-3-3, 3-5-2. Кроме того, отдельные части тела одного человека могут явственно относиться к разным соматотипам — такое несоответствие носит название дисплазии, однако её учёт остался слабым местом системы Шелдона.

Шелдон рассматривал соматотип человека как неизменный в течение жизни — меняются внешний вид и размеры тела, но не соматотип. Например, различные болезни, неправильное питание или гипертрофия мышц, связанная с усиленной физической нагрузкой, изменяют только очертания тела, но не сам соматотип.

Большой интерес представляют исследования Шелдона и его учеников, которые были посвящены изучению изменения веса тела (рост-весового индекса) человека на протяжении его жизни в зависимости от соматотипа. Было проведено огромное количество антропологических измерений на протяжении десятков лет, и полученные результаты были сведены в таблицы. На основании этих таблиц возможен прогноз веса индивидуума мужского или женского пола в различные жизненные периоды в зависимости от его роста и соматотипа.

Прогнозирование физического развития

Например, при исследовании группы студентов, занимающихся спортом, примерно одного возраста (от 18 до 21 года) мужского пола, определены их росто-весовые и соматотипические данные.

Студент А. Имеет соматотип 5-2-2 и вес 72 кг. При росте 166 см. Это преимущественный эндоморф. Если мы, на основании данных таблиц Шелдона, построим график зависимости гипотетического веса тела для данного соматотипа в разные периоды его жизни, то увидим, что его реальный вес превышает расчетный и будет вероятно увеличиваться с возрастом до 84 кг к 60 годам. Студент Б. — преимущественный мезоморф и его прогнозируемый вес вероятно будет составлять в старшей возрастной группе 83 кг. Иное дело, студент В., при росте 185 см он весит 67 кг. Это нормальный вес для его конституционного типа и мы видим, что с возрастом его вес мало изменится. Таким образом, при определении соматотипа, необходимо учитывать возраст, наличие или отсутствие патологических процессов и степень физической нагрузки, то есть необходимо иметь определённый опыт, позволяющий увидеть «тощего эндоморфа» или «толстого мезоморфа». В практике соматотипирования считается, что для окончательной оценки следует принимать тот соматотип, который складывается к 20-25 годам при нормальном питании. Концепция неизменных соматотипов Шелдона была удобна и для теоретической антропометрии, и для исследования природных типов телосложения. Однако бурное развитие культуризма в 60-е годы привело к появлению таких мышечно-развитых тел, параметры которых не лезли ни в какие рамки. Разработанная в культуризме система тренировок и появление специальных продуктов питания (белки, энергетики, свободные аминокислоты) фактически позволили менять соматотип и поддерживать его в изменённом виде сколь угодно долго.

Соматосрез Хит-Картера

In 1968, American physiologists B. Heath and L. Carter finalized the Sheldon system, excluding the upper limit for evaluation points, presenting formulas for the numerical rather than visual determination of somatotype components and formulas for calculating the XY coordinates of the resulting point on a plane with three axes. Thus, the calculation of the components of the somatotype according to correctly performed measurements made it possible to obtain a completely objective and adequately changing body estimate in the form of a single visual point on the plane. English anthropologists widely apply the Parnell scheme (Parnell, 1958), based on the use of the table cited in Heath ^{[8] [9]} (1968). It takes into account three sets of measuring characteristics for representatives of different age groups: growth-weight ratios, bone diameters and girth sizes, as well as skin-fat folds. The result is a score for the somatotype. Despite the fact that Parnell criticized a similar scheme, mainly for the incorrectness of the photography technique and subjectivity in assessing the development of components of body composition and somatotype scores, of course, the Sheldon's approach is the basis of this method. In particular, an arbitrary seven-point scale is preserved, the intervals of the distribution of the scale of the fat component are given in accordance with Sheldon averages. Graphically, a somatoslice is expressed by a point on a plane with three coordinate axes located at an angle of 120 ° to each other.

Axes - endomorphy ("fat" - left-down), mesomorphy ("muscles" - up) and ectomorphy ("bones" - right-down). For example, more smart, slender people are "located" on the somatoslice plane in the zero region to the right of the origin, the fashion model is even to the right; bodybuilders are located along the mesomorphic axis in the upper part of the plane with a Y value of more than ten, and overweight pushes the point to the left of zero. With a change in muscle mass and the amount of fat in the body, the somatosection will change, and in comparison with the points of previous measurements, you can observe the drift of the current point, showing the direction of the changes taking place in your body. The advantage of the Heath-Carter scheme is that it is recommended by the authors for people of both sexes, all nationalities and races, who are between the ages of 2 and 70 years.

Modern somatotyping techniques

Today, there are numerous modifications of somatotyping, for example, V. P. Chtsetsov or M. V. Chernorutsky, which is traditionally used in medical practice to denote constitutional types ^[10] .
With this scheme, the following three types are distinguished:

1. Normostenic type, characterized by proportional body size and harmonious development of the musculoskeletal system;
2. The asthenic type, which is distinguished by a slender body, poor development of the muscular system, the predominance (in comparison with normosthenic) of longitudinal body sizes and chest sizes over the size of the abdomen; limb lengths - over the length of the body;
3. The hypersthenic type, which differs from the normosthenic type in good fatness, a long body and short limbs, the relative predominance of the transverse dimensions of the body, the size of the abdomen over the size of the chest.

There are three main types of physique (or somatotype):

• mesomorphic
• brachymorphic or opposite dolichomorphic .

• Individuation

• William Sheldon: A Forgotten Giant of American Psychology