Prehistoric china

Conventionality of periods delimitation

The border between the prehistoric and historical eras of China is rather arbitrary. The oldest Chinese written sources date from the 13th century. BC e. They affect only the last period of the Shang dynasty and are geographically limited to the Yinxiu region, roughly coinciding with modern Anyang . It was a religious and possibly also a political center in the last three centuries of the Shang dynasty. The content of early written sources is limited to brief inscriptions on bronze vessels and fortunetelling bones - cattle shoulder blades and tortoise shells. In addition, not all early hieroglyphs have been deciphered to date: in particular, problems are associated with the identification of geographical names and designations of peoples and tribes. Therefore, despite the availability of written sources, even after 1300 BC. e. the main body of data on the history of China is associated with archaeological finds - this is true for the Yinxiu region and even more so for those regions where there was no written language.

Such a blurred historical picture, when written monuments cannot provide the main body of historical data, remains until about 200 BC. e., after which, finally, we can talk about a good link between archaeological and written data.

The relationship between archeology and historical tradition

There is a definite relationship between archeology and the historical tradition of China. Despite the lack of written sources on the period up to 1300 BC. e. (and the scarcity of sources over the next millennium), Chinese historians were actively interested and wrote about these times. At the end of the Zhou period and during the Han Dynasty, historical works were codified: this is how historical works about the ancient history of China arose, which contained descriptions of historical events (not always real) and descriptions of their alleged causes. Historical works were constantly supplied with comments so that officials in one period or another could refer to them as reference manuals. In Chinese historiography, there is a rather detailed description of the later preliterate period .

After the collapse of the Chinese Empire in 1912, the views of the Chinese on the reliability of sources about ancient history were divided. Influenced by the achievements of Western archeology in the early 20th century. China came up with the School of Confidence in Antiquities ( xingupai , 信 古 派) and the more skeptical School of Doubt in Antiquity ( yigupai , 疑古 派), which Gu Jiegan founded. Excavations in Yinxu confirmed the existence of the Shang Dynasty . The list of rulers of this dynasty until that time was considered only as a myth by both Western scholars and supporters of Gu Jiegan, but the discovery turned upside down the notions of the Chinese historiographic tradition and strengthened the position of the Trust in Antiquity school in China. Western scholars also did not rule out the possibility of finding archaeological evidence of the Xia dynasty, as in the case of the Shang dynasty, but they still had serious doubts about the earliest period of Chinese history - the era of the three rulers and five emperors that preceded the Xia dynasty. Chinese historians, by contrast, relied on the historicity of the period with great confidence. In their opinion, this period was the history of clan leaders and the period of “ten thousand kingdoms” (萬 國, wan guo ). This term was used in traditional historiography to describe the agrarian settlements surrounded by walls that existed in China during the period of the five emperors, and archaeologically corresponding, apparently, to the Longshan culture . In them, Chinese historians saw the roots of the Xia, Shan and Zhou dynasties .

Sinocentrism in Chinese Archeology

All the events of the mythological period , according to traditional Chinese historiography , took place in Zhongyuan ( en: Central Plain (China) ), the Central Yellow River Valley in the northwest of modern Henan and southwest Shanxi , as well as in the Weihe River Valley in Shaanxi . According to traditional Chinese historiography, it was from these places that Chinese civilization spread to other parts of China, which at that time did not yet constitute a noticeable civilization. The discovery of the Yangshao culture around 1920 seemed to be another confirmation of this concept in line with Sinocentrism . Then, when in the early 1930s. Longshan culture was discovered on the east coast of Shandong , and the established ideas had to be amended. The historian Fu Xinyang ( nl: Fu Sinian , 傅斯年, 1896–1950) developed the “Hypothesis of E in the East and Xia in the West” ( Yi Xia dongxi shuo , 夷夏 東西 說), according to which the oldest population of China was divided into 2 groups, the eastern - (Dong) Yi and western, Xia (Xia). This theory was further developed by Liang Siyong ( nl: Liang Siyong , 梁思永, 1904-1954). In the framework of this theory, it was believed that the Yangshao culture was developed by the population of the Western Xia group, and the Longshan culture was developed by the population of the Eastern Group I. Such representations until the 1950s were the dominant theory of Chinese prehistory, followed by both Chinese and Western historians.

Around 1960, studies were published according to which the Longshan culture did not coexist with the Yangshao culture , but descended from the latter. It was then that Zhang Kuangzi ( en: Chang Kwang-chih ), the author of the book "Archeology of Ancient China", still influential among Chinese historians, developed the "core region theory." According to this theory, Yangshao culture was the oldest Chinese culture that originated in the Central Valley. From it, the Longshan culture developed, which then spread to the east coast. The central plain, according to this theory, retained its unique position, so this interpretation was consistent with the sinocentrism customary for Chinese archeology.

Then, starting in the 1970s, archaeologists discovered more and more artifacts in areas outside the Central Plain, which clearly refuted the concept of sinocentrism. Many of these items were older in age than items from the Central Plain, and sometimes, moreover, better in quality or more artistic in execution. This is true, in particular, for the jade artifacts of the Hongshan culture in the territory of modern Inner Mongolia , as well as, of course, for bronze artifacts from nl: Sanxingdui in the territory of the modern province of Sichuan .

In 1981, the theory of the "core region" was finally refuted. This year, Xu Binqi ( nl: Su Bingqi , 蘇秉琦, 1909-1997) published the hypothesis of “regional systems and cultural categories” ( quxi leixing , 區 系 類型). He identified six regional systems, each of which he, in turn, divided into a number of cultural subsystems. And although the Central Plain continued to play an important role in the development of Chinese culture in this new theory, it, however, no longer spoke of its unilateral influence on the periphery. Regional cultures developed in their own way, with their own specific characteristics; the influence was considered as bilateral - as the center on the periphery, and vice versa, and the influence of regional cultures on each other - as more important than the influence on them from the Central Plain. Xu Binqi compared his theory in 1999 with "star-studded sky" ( mantian xingdou , 满天星 斗).

The oldest fossils of hominids found in China belong to the Miocene and date back to 7-8 million years ago. This is a part of the lower jaw with several badly damaged teeth, found near the village of Longjiagou in the county of Udu in the territory of modern Gansu province. This find was described only in 1988 and attributed to the local variety of dryopithecus , Dryopithecus wuduensis .

In 1957, a number of fossil teeth were discovered in the Xiaolongtan area in Kaiyuan County (present-day Yunnan Province ). Initially, they were attributed to another subspecies of Dryopithecus keiyuanensis dryopithecus , but in 1965 the classification was revised, and the species was called syvapitec . This monkey is now regarded as the ancestor of the orangutan .

In the late 1970s. Near Shihueyba in Luifeng County in the Chusyun -Ii Autonomous Region , also in Yunnan province , hundreds of fossil teeth, upper and lower jaws, as well as a full, although damaged, skull were found.

In 1980 and 1990 new fossil remains were found in Yuanmou County in the Chuxiun-Yi Autonomous Region in Yunnan Province, 100 km north of Luifeng. The find consisted of 1,500 fossil teeth, 20 lower and upper jaws and a full skull of a young anthropoid ape. The hominids from Yuanmou were originally assigned to two new species, Ramapithecus hudienensis and Homo orientalis . With the exception of the skull, in 1987 they were combined into one species, Lufengpithecus hudiensis , sister to the species Lufengpithecus lufengensis . The skull from the Yuanmou find apparently belonged to a previously unknown species, Lufengpithecus yuanmouensis .

Ancient hominid artifacts

To date, the oldest evidence of the presence of anthropoid beings in China are artifacts from Renzidong (人 字 洞) in Anhui Province. According to the most daring, but controversial dating, they date about 2 million years ago. Stone tools in Shangchen on the Loess Plateau in southern China date from 2.12 million years ago. Artifacts from Majuangou III and Shangshazui in the Nihewan Basin in northern China date back 1.6–1.7 million years ago ^[1] , the age of the Lungupo site dates back to the Early Pleistocene period - 2.04 million years ago ^[2] .

In the 1930s, reports were published of finds of artifacts from the Early Pleistocene era (1.8 - 0.8 million years ago).

Location of Xiaochanlian (Nihevan basin, Hebei) with oldduvian tools dates from 1.36 Ma ^[3] to 1.66 Ma ^[4] .

The following paleoanthropological findings date back to the Paleolithic era in China: a Homo erectus tooth from Luonan (Donghekun) in Shaanxi province (1.15-0.7 million years ago) ^[5] , two skulls Homo erectus EV 9001 and EV 9002 from Yongxian in Hubei province (580-800 thousand years ago) ^[6] , a synanthropus from Zhoukoudian , a Yuanmou person ^[7] , a Lantian person ^{[8] [9]} , a Nanking person ^{[10] [11]} , Homo erectus hexianensis from Lontandong (Angu province, Gekxiang district) aged 415 thousand years ^{[12] [13]} , 7 teeth of Homo erectus from Bailong Cave in Hubei province (550 thousand years ago ^{[14] [15]} or 0, 76 million years ago ^[16] ) ^[14] , fragments of a skeleton from Chizinshan (Yayyuan) in Shandong province (440 thousand years ago) ^[17] , a Dali skull ( en: Dali (fossil) ) aged 209,000 ± 23,000 years ^[18] and a similar skull from Hualongdong with a fragment of the jaw and teeth dating from 150-412 thousand liters. n from Anhui province ^{[19] [20]} , Homo helmei from Chinnushan ( Jinniushan ) 200-280 thousand years old ^[21] , the jaw of Homo erectus from Changyan in Hubei province (220-170 thousand years ago) ^[22] , the upper jaw of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis from Yenshan (Inshan, Chaoxiang, Chaohu) in the province of Angu (220-160 thousand years ago), the skull of Mapa or Maba ( en: Maba Man ) aged 129-135 thousand years ^{[ 23] [24]} , skulls from Xuchang (Henan) aged 105-125 thousand years ^{[25] [26]} , two teeth and a part of the lower jaw of Zhizhen locality Zhirendong ( Zhirendong ) aged 100-113 thousand years ^{[27] [28 ] ]} , findings of teeth from the caves of Fuyan ( en: Fuyan Cave ) age of 80 thousand years ^{[29] [30]} , the Moon ( Luna Cav e ) in the whereabouts of Lunadong from 70 to 126 thousand years old ^[31] and the limestone cave in Bija 112–178 thousand years old ^[32] , human remains from the Suijziao locality ( en: Xujiayao ) aged 104-125 thousand . years ^[33] .

Four teeth from the Yanhui Cave in Tongji County, Tongzi, Zunyi City District, Guizhou Province date from 172,000 to 240,000 years ago. Perhaps these are the remains of Denisov's man ^{[34] [35]} . Also, according to the paleoproteomics , the Denisovites were close to the Baishiya Karst Cave, who lived in Xiahe County (Gansu Province), who lived 160 thousand years ago ^[36] .

Seven tools made from animal bones from 105 to 125 thousand years ago were found in Henan province ^[37] . Also in Henan Province, in the Lingjing site, on two bone fragments 105–125 thousand years old, several scratched lines were found, some of which were sprinkled with ocher. The authors draw a cautious conclusion that the drawings could be made by Denisovans ^[38] .

A man from Liujiang ( en: Liujiang man ) from the urban district of Liuzhou (67 thousand years ago ) ^[39] .

The Late Paleolithic includes a man from the Tianyuan cave ( en: Tianyuan man ) aged 40 thousand years, whose mitochondrial haplogroup B was determined ^[40] , the Shanding Dung man , the man from the Deer Cave , the upper incisor (CV.939.2) from Lungupo (Wuhan person) ^[2] .

The oldest pottery (20,000 - 19,000 years ago) in China is known for its pots in the Xianjendong Cave in the Jiangxi Province in the southeast of China ^[41] . Shards from a pointed vessel were found in Hunan province in the Yuchanyan cave 18.3-17.5 thousand years ago ^[42] . Monuments Särendong (14 610 ± 290 bp) and Miaoyang (13 710 ± 270 bp) are located in Southern China ^[43] .

Sinlunwa Neolithic culture (6200-5400 BC) is China's earliest archaeological culture, using jade objects and dragon drawings. Sinlunwa's pottery was mostly cylindrical and fired at low temperatures. In several jugs from Jiahu , traces of alcoholic beverages obtained from the fermentation of rice, honey and some local plants were found.

Climate and environmental change

Around 14000 BC e. China ended the glaciation of Dali. Sea level at that time was 110 m below the current one. According to one hypothesis, at that time Japan and Taiwan , as well as the Indonesian islands of Sumatra , Java and Borneo were connected with the Asian continent (for a critique of this hypothesis, see the article prehistoric Philippines ). Around 13000 BC e. the climate was especially cold. Between 11,150 and 10,400 BC e. average annual temperature increased by 7 ° C. Thanks to the water formed from the melting of the glaciers , the sea level has risen sharply. At the time of the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene , between 10,000 and 8,000 years. BC e., sea level was still lower than the present by 18 meters, but about 5000 BC. e. reached the current level. Between 4000 and 3000 BC e. sea ​​level increased by another 5 meters, and then gradually decreased. About 200 years later, the current level was reached.

Transition to agrarian communities

Millet crops

In central China, around 6000 BC e. Three Middle Neolithic cultures were distinguished: Tsyshan in Hebei Province, Paligang south of the Yellow River in Henan Province, and Dadivan in the Weishui Valley in Shaanxi Province . In those days, the climate there was warmer and wetter than at present. These cultures were cultivated millet ( Setaria italica ). They also picked fruits and nuts, including walnuts ( Juglans regia ) and hazelnuts ( Corylus leteraphylea ). Dogs and pigs were kept as pets. A large number of bones of banker hens ( Gallus gallus ) were found, which also indicates poultry farming.

The Beixin Neolithic culture that cultivated millet existed 5300–4100 BC ^[44] .

It is unclear whether the Bailandong culture in Guangxi province should be considered as Mesolithic ^[45] . Perhaps during the Neolithic period, farmers from the Yangtze Valley moved south and adapted their farming skills to local conditions. For southern China, this meant a direct transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic, bypassing the Mesolithic.

Rice-growing crops

Early evidence of rice cultivation in prehistoric China dates from the carbon method around 6000 BC. e.

China's Neolithic Regional Cultures

After the Xia Dynasty, the Shang Dynasty (also known as the Yin Dynasty ) came to power ^[46]

Iron first came into use during the Zhou Dynasty , but its use is minimal. In Chinese literature of the 6th century BC. iron smelting is mentioned, but bronze continues to play a significant role in both the archaeological and historical context, for some time after that. ^[47] Historian W.K. White (WC White) states that “throughout all the periods until the end of the Zhou Dynasty (256 BC),” iron still did not supplant bronze and that bronze vessels make up the majority of metal vessels up to the late Han period , i.e. until 221 BC ^[48]