Homophobia

History of the use of the term

The term “homophobia” was first used in print in the late 1960s ^[5] in an article published May 5, 1969 in the pornographic tabloid “ Screw, ” in which American gay activists Jack Nichols and Lee Clark ( English Lige Clarke ) by this word meant the fear of gay men that they might be mistaken for homosexuals. A month later, the word "homophobia" was used in the article "The Homosexual in America" , which was devoted to the cover of Time magazine ^[6] . For the first time in a scientific publication, the term “homophobia” was used by Kenneth Smith in 1971 in his article “Homophobia: A Tentative Personality Profile” ^[7] .

The term “homophobia” was widely used in his writings by the famous American clinical psychologist , who first used it in print in his article “Words for the New Culture” in 1971, and then in the monograph published in 1972 “ Society and the Healthy Homosexual ” (the first scientific work in which this term was used) ^{[5] [6]} , where he described homophobia as“ fear of being close to homosexuals, and in the case of homosexuals, self-loathing ” ^[7] . In 2012, Weinberg, in his blog on The Huffington Post, called for homophobia to be officially included on the official list of mental disorders ^{[6] [8]} . Gregory Herek called the emergence of the new term “a milestone” in the history of LGBT people, crystallizing the entire experience of rejection, hostility and invisibility that homosexual men and women in North America of the 20th century experienced throughout their lives ^[6] . At the same time, Herek called Weinberg’s intention to bring homophobia closer to the field of pathology rather political than theoretical ^[7] .

The term homophobia replaced the previously rarely used concept of homosexophobia . A possible etymological ancestor of this word is the word homoerotophobia ( homoerotophobia ). ^[9] Later, in 1980 , Hudson and Ricketts expanded the term to mean “feelings of anxiety, disgust, anger, discomfort, and fear that heterosexuals may experience with regard to lesbians and gays” ^[10] .

Neuropsychologist and Hunter Madsen in the book “ 1989 ” suggested using the term “homophobia” in public debate for gay rights: “Although the term“ homophobia ”would be more precise,“ homophobia “works rhetorically better because it sounds less offensive to straight people and suggests in a quasi-clinical form that anti-homosexual feelings are associated with their own unhealthy psychological malfunctions and insecurity” ^[11] .

Encyclopedic Definitions

The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (1990) points to the existence of various definitions of the term “homophobia”, noting their common feature - a negative attitude towards homosexual people and homosexuality. It is also noted that the characterization of sexual prejudice as a phobia is criticized for many reasons, including the implication that sexual prejudice is an irrational fear and manifestation of an individual pathology , rather than a manifestation of cultural norms. However, despite the shortcomings, the term "homophobia" is widely used in the English language. The authors emphasize that homophobia should be identified precisely as prejudice, comparing this phenomenon with racism and anti-Semitism , and not as irrational fear like claustrophobia and agoraphobia ^[12] .

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines homophobia as culturally determined fear or prejudice against homosexual people, which can manifest itself in legal restrictions or, in extreme cases, in the form of bullying and violence against them. The encyclopedia notes that although the terms containing the word “ phobia ” are used to denote irrational fears, in this case we are talking about a negative attitude, starting from a slight hostility and ending with a complete disgust for people who are romantically or sexually attracted to people of one with them sex. It is emphasized that homophobia is a culturally determined reaction, and attitudes towards homosexuality can differ significantly in different cultures and over time ^[5] .

The Oxford Dictionary gives the following definition: "Dislike or prejudice against homosexual people" ^[13] .

The concept of homophobia in sociology

According to some opinions, homophobia is a form of phobia , expressed in unexplained fear and unreflected , irrational hostility or hatred of homosexual and bisexual people. It is believed that homophobia may be due to fear of one's own fantasies of a homosexual nature and is a sign of unconscious homosexuality ^{[14] [15] [16]} .

Some scholars define homophobia more broadly as “avoidance, fear, prejudice, discrimination, harassment or acts of violence against lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transgender people ” ^[17] .

Homophobia, being a specific socio-psychological phenomenon, refers to the manifestation of xenophobia . According to Igor Kon , homophobia is both a product and a counterweight to male homoerotism , and therefore is peculiar, first of all, to men and is more pronounced in relation to gays than to lesbians. Thus, homophobia serves as a means of distinguishing between “real” dominant men and “fake” feminine men ^[18] .

Sociologist Michael Kimmel also considers ^{[19] the} effects of dominant stereotypes of masculinity (“ultra-masculine behavior”, “ hegemonic masculinity ”), and states that homophobic reactions are one way of emphasizing masculinity.

In the 90s, the United States developed the Homophobia Scale by Lester Urait ^[20] , and the Russian version of the scale was adapted in 2017 by B. B. Tuzyak ^[21] There are about five types of scales that evaluate the level of homophobic reactions.

Mentioned in government documents

The concept of homophobia as a social phenomenon arose within the West European sociocultural paradigm. Resolution of the European Parliament “Homophobia in Europe” dated January 18, 2006 defines homophobia as “irrational fear and aversion to homosexuality and to lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transgender people, based on prejudice and similar to racism , xenophobia anti-Semitism and sexism ”( English an irrational fear of and aversion to homosexuality and to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people based on prejudice and similar to racism, xenophobia, anti-semitism and sexism ) ^[3] - accepting, thus, the interpretation of homophobia as a social and cultural phenomenon, rather than a psychiatric syn drome.

The New York Times summarizes that critics of the term “homophobia” (both from heterosexuals and from homosexuals) indicate that this term is often used as a political tool, since homophobia does not imply irrational fear like fear of snakes or fear of heights, and emotions associated with homophobia represent more hostility and disgust than fear. According to them, the meaning of this term was so blurred over time that today almost everything is included in it: from physical attacks, to private thoughts and government policies ^[6] .

The concept of homophobia in psychiatry

The Greek suffix " phobia " implies unpleasant physiological and psychological reactions, which does not meet the criteria for a clinical diagnosis of "phobia", including excessive, irrational, inappropriate and constant fear of an object or circumstance, and a subsequent desire to distance itself from it.

The term “homophobia” does not meet these criteria because:

• people with anti-homosexual attitudes consider their negative reactions to lesbians and homosexuals to be normal and justified;
• unlike phobias in the strict sense, “homophobia” does not necessarily jeopardize the social functioning of people with anti-homosexual attitudes;
• “Homophobes” do not experience suffering and do not feel the need to get rid of negative attitudes;
• phobias cause avoidance of situations or objects of fear, while with “homophobia” avoidance can coexist with behavior characterized by active disgust or intentional aggression.

Thus, the term “homophobia” is not appropriate, since it focuses mainly on individual cases, neglecting the cultural component and the social roots of intolerance and, therefore, the relationship between “homophobia” and other forms of “plural hatred” (misogyny, racism, anti-Semitism, etc.). ^[four]

The term “homophobia” itself is not a sign of a mental disorder ; there is no such disease in the International Classification of Diseases of the World Health Organization and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association .

In 2012, one of the largest news outlets in the world, the Associated Press , recommended that the term “homophobia” be used in writing style articles, emphasizing that “phobia is an irrational, uncontrolled fear, often a form of mental illness.” It was also noted that this term is speculative, and the causes of anti-homosexual feelings or actions may be different ^[6] .

Homophobia and Homonegativism

Psychologists note that it is not easy to draw a clear line between a negative attitude to homosexuality and homophobia. Some believe that homophobia is associated with the presence of negative emotions (and not just with the declaration of a certain position) and / or an active fight against manifestations of homosexuality. For example, Hudson and Ricketts in their 1980 work ^[22] noted that due to the wide expansion of the term from the professional community to the mass culture of Western society, homophobia often began to mean any action against manifestations of homosexuality or a negative attitude towards them. They also accuse researchers of not distinguishing between intellectual rejection of homosexuality ( homonegativism ) and personal, emotional reactions (homophobia). In order to more clearly distinguish between homophobia and homonegativism, these authors emphasized that homonegativism includes judgments based on assessing the morality of homosexual and bisexual orientations, as well as actions based on ideas, preferences, law, social acceptability, or other intellectual reasons. Homophobia, in their opinion, should be understood as strictly phobic manifestations of vivid emotions of fear, anxiety or disgust (which may or may not include the cognitive component) in the process of direct personal communication with people of homosexual orientation. In the social sciences, however, not everyone shares this classification.

In 1991, Gregory Herek opposed the further use of the concept of homophobia, since it places the main blame on the individual, instead of considering anti-homosexual manifestations as a reflection of cultural influences, and suggests using the term “anti-homosexual prejudice ” ^[10] .

Most opponents of same-sex sexual relations claim that their attitude toward overt manifestations of homosexuality is mainly related to the majority's perception of the norm, and therefore is not something reprehensible or abnormal. Some (both opponents of same-sex relationships and specialists) object to the legitimacy of the use of the term “homophobia”, considering it an ideological cliche that is excessively widely used to create an impression of opponents of homosexuality as not quite normal and healthy people. In this regard, there were proposals to replace it with the more neutral term “ homonegativism ”. Currently, there are scientific works using the term "homonegativism." A number of specialists distinguish between a moral negative attitude towards homosexual activity and homosexuals as individuals, insisting that these are different and different forms of homonegativism. There are several studies that substantiate this difference ^[23] .

There is a point of view that homophobia is a form of xenophobia ^{[24] [25]} and, therefore, is associated primarily with the fear of others, those who stand out from the crowd.

Institutional Homophobia

The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (1990) characterizes the manifestation of institutional homophobia through the adoption of anti-homosexual legislation, as well as anti-homosexual statements by legislators, politicians and organized religious and other public groups. In addition, the authors attribute social homophobia to social processes aimed at enhancing the invisibility of homosexual people (for example, the exclusive use of heteronormative terms in the media ). For many centuries, Western society was characterized by an disapproving attitude towards homosexuality, which, according to the authors, was the result of the dominant ideology about the need for society to maintain strict gender roles and link sexual behavior with procreation . Among other explanations for institutional homophobia, the authors call the use of hostility to homosexuality in intergroup conflicts to achieve the interests of certain political and religious groups ^[12] .

Social homophobia leads to the fact that many homosexual people are forced to hide their sexuality (a special term is even used for this phenomenon - to live "in the closet" in English in the closet ) in order to avoid social stigmatization . Heterosexual people can also become victims of homophobia, who have to prove their heterosexuality . Thus, both heterosexuals and homosexuals who do not want to be different from heterosexuals are forced to remove from themselves everything that can be perceived as homosexual and repeatedly establish a connection with the heterosexual cultural code . In particular, men are expected, for example, to be interested in team sports, violence, cars, beer, the emotionlessness associated with heterosexual masculinity , while women are expected to be interested in the arts, food, individual sports and emotionality associated with femininity . The interest shown to the opposite sex raises suspicion of homosexuality ^[5] .

The British Encyclopedia notes two cases of extreme homophobia in society. In those cultures in which a high degree of homophobia is combined with a high level of awareness of homosexuality, people are preoccupied with constant evidence of their own heterosexuality, as homosexuality is stigmatized . To describe such societies, the American sociologist Eric Anderson uses the term "homo-hysteria". According to Andersen, homo-hysterical cultures are characterized by limitations in the social, sexual and personal behavior of people, caused by fear of association with femininity in men and with masculinity in women. Another example of extreme homophobia are cultures in which even the very existence of homosexual people is not allowed (in the modern world, many Middle Eastern, African and Asian cultures can be attributed to such cultures), so people do not need to constantly prove their heterosexuality. The encyclopedia notes that in societies where homosexuality is completely taboo, LGBT people may have more freedom of expression than in homo-hysterical cultures ^[5] .

According to Britannica , homophobia and homoistery peaked in the West in the 1980s with the spread of AIDS , which increased public awareness of homosexual people and increased influence of Christian fundamentalist groups in the United States. At the same time, this period was associated with the development of the LGBT rights movement . By the beginning of the 21st century, anti-homosexual laws were abolished in most Western countries and liberalization of attitude towards homosexual people in some Christian denominations took place. Significantly increased the number of LGBT people leading an open lifestyle . All these changes have led to a significant decrease in the level of cultural homophobia in the countries of Europe and North America ^[5] .

Individual Homophobia

The "Encyclopedia of Homosexuality" refers to individual homophobia as manifestations of open hostility towards homosexual people (both verbal and physical attacks), as well as a " heterosexual worldview ", which can, for example, manifest itself in the assumption that all friends and relatives are heterosexual by default . The encyclopedia, referring to American national studies, argues for a correlation between the level of individual homophobia and psychological and demographic characteristics, noting that a higher level of homophobia is characteristic of people with conservative or fundamentalist religious views. In addition, such people more often than people with a positive or tolerant attitude towards homosexuality attend religious services, adhere to restrictive attitudes regarding sexuality and gender issues, more often demonstrate a high level of authoritarianism and are less likely to have personal contacts with open gays and lesbians. Also, as a rule, there is a lower level of education and an older age of people with a homophobic worldview. It is also indicated that individual homophobia is more common in regions in which negative attitudes towards homosexuals in general prevail in society (for example, rural areas or small towns; in the USA - the South of the USA and the Midwest ) ^[12] .

Many studies have noted a higher level of homophobia in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women. It is also noted that more homophobia is directed against homosexual men ^[12] .

Inner Homophobia

Internal homophobia (also internal homophobia, Eng. Internalized homophobia ) is a homophobic reaction directed at oneself when a same-sex drive arises, regardless of whether the individual is homosexual or not ^{[12] [26] [27] [28]} . At the same time, some homosexuals, bisexuals and lesbians suppress their own homosexual desires and aspirations, while others do not, but may experience various negative emotions - guilt, anxiety, remorse, and so on.

By analogy with criticism of the very concept of homophobia, many authors also reject the term internal homophobia, which instead suggests the use of other terms, for example, “internal heterosexism”, “internal sexual prejudice” or “internal sexual stigma”. However, to date, alternative terminology has not found widespread use ^[29] .

Internal homophobia can have various negative consequences for an individual’s psychological health. In this case, a decrease in self-esteem, neurotization, the development of various psychological complexes, depression and even suicidal intentions and attempts can be observed. Homosexuals and bisexuals who live secretly (hiding their orientation from others) and suffer from internal homophobia can also develop a peculiar paranoid mood, painful suspiciousness and suspiciousness. It always seems to such a person that they’ll “figure him out”, reveal that they laugh at him, discuss, condemn him, and that they can dismiss him from work, that they will not accept him or have a bad attitude to him precisely because they guess or know about his orientation. Moreover, such fears may or may not have real grounds.

Lesbophobia, Bifobia, and Transphobia

Some experts and activists have proposed the special term lesbophobia ( English lesbophobia ) for the specialized designation of negative reactions specifically against lesbians . According to representatives of the French Center for Combating Homophobia, such a separation is important because lesbians, compared with gays, are reluctant to admit discrimination against them, although in reality such facts do occur ^[30] . Lesbophobia is associated with some special stereotypes - for example, prejudice against women athletes in connection with suspicions that most of them are lesbians ^[31] . Some experts and activists also separately stand out such phenomena as bifobia and transphobia .

Homophobia among believers and conservative groups

Traditional values are stable moral norms and ideas about a person’s life path, transmitted from generation to generation and often having religious grounds. In the traditional movements of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, homosexual sex is seen as a serious sin, and if those living in sin should be called to repentance, then propaganda of a sinful lifestyle, according to religious activists, should be fought ^{[32] [33] [34] [35 ] ] [36]} . Thus, religious activists require the state to ban public actions of people with a homosexual orientation ( gay pride parades and the like), as well as criminal or administrative sanctions for such actions. Traditionalists may also accuse homosexuals of destroying a reproductive family ^{[37] [38]} .

Studies in Europe have shown that there is a connection between negative attitudes towards homosexual activity and religious affiliation. However, religious teachings contain reminders not only of the condemnation of sin, but also of love for others. Therefore, religiosity can be associated with moral rejection of homosexual activity, but at the same time not be associated with intolerance towards homosexuals as a social group. However, religious groups are not the same. Some fundamentalists openly declare hatred of homosexuals. For example, Westborough Baptist Church , seen as a “hate group,” holds rallies in which it declares that “God hates gays.” Several American studies have shown that evangelical Protestants are more intolerant of homosexual people than American mainstream Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. Studies in Europe found no significant difference between Protestants and Catholics. In some studies, Muslims were less tolerant than Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox in Europe ^[23] .

Studies have shown that not all religiosity is associated with both aversion to homosexual activity and intolerance to homosexuals. In most European countries, traditional believers, although they tend to morally reject homosexual activity as a sin, are no more so than non-traditional believers and non-believers are intolerant of homosexuals (polls show the attitude of different groups towards homosexuals if they turn out to be their neighbors). Residents of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, Muslims and Orthodox, are more likely to reject homosexual behavior and be intolerant of homosexuals (if they turn out to be their immediate neighbors). Some authors believe that intolerance towards homosexuals in the post-Soviet countries of Eastern Europe is associated not with religious, but with secular reasons ^[23] .

Opponents of homosexuality believe that homosexuality is not a variant of the norm, but its violation (clinical disorder, sin, violation of public moral standards), and therefore, an aversion to this phenomenon is natural .

Homophobia as an hostile attitude towards representatives of sexual minorities is a very common phenomenon, which often leads to violence and insults, institutionalized homophobia, the so-called heterosexism - discrimination against people of a homosexual orientation on the part of society .

In Western countries, psychologists and social scientists are exploring the phenomenon of homophobia. ^[39]

For example, Henry Adams, Lester Wright Jr. and Bethany Lore published an article in 1996 ^[16] describing a study in which two groups of men, conditionally defined as “homophobes” and “non-homophobia” (the level of “homophobia” was determined according to with the Hudson and Ricketts Index Homophobia Questionnaire), erotic stimuli of a heterosexual, female homosexual, and male homosexual nature were presented. All subjects had an erection when demonstrating images of a heterosexual and female homosexual nature, while a similar reaction to male homosexual subjects was observed only in men from the conditional group of “homophobes”. At the same time, the results disproved the thesis that only subjects with aggressive behavior were “homophobes”: there was no difference between the “aggressiveness indices” of the two groups.

Institutional and individual homophobia are interrelated, therefore, measures to reduce homophobia should cover both of these levels in combination. The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality calls family outing among friends and colleagues “a powerful tool” for overcoming homophobia, because regular personal contacts between a majority group and a minority group reduce prejudice among members of the majority group. Также указывается на то, что выходу ЛГБТ из «подполья» могут способствовать такие общественные изменения, как декриминализация однополых отношений, принятие антидискриминационного законодательства и защита от преступлений на почве ненависти ^[12] .

В Англии проводится бескомпромиссная борьба с гомофобией. Так, например, 72-летний член городского совета города Борнмута , в ответ на письмо с вопросом о том, сколь много бюрократических препон пришлось бы преодолеть Ною в наше время, ответил, что Ною пришлось бы ещё объяснять, почему на его ковчеге нет гомосексуальных животных. Эта шутка была сочтена оскорблением гей-сообщества Борнмута, и политик лишился своего поста ^[40] . Правительство Великобритании также планирует урезать финансовую помощь странам, которые стигматизируют своих ЛГБТ-граждан ^[41] .

Представители российских ЛГБТ решили открыть в Сочи Прайд-Хаус , как и на двух предыдущих Олимпиадах. Однако российские власти отказали им в регистрации организации, а суды признали её «экстремистской». В итоге МОК заявил, что не может повлиять на запрет «Прайд Хауса», в то же время напомнив, что Олимпийская хартия не приемлет дискриминацию . ^{[42] [43] [44]}

Гомофобия в России

В связи с намерением сексуальных меньшинств провести в 2006 году гей-парад в Москве «Фонд Общественное мнение» организовал социологический опрос ^[45] , в результате которого были обнаружены следующие тенденции в отношении российского общества к сексуальным меньшинствам (гомосексуалам и лесбиянкам):

…в российском обществе нет однозначного отношения к представителям сексуальных меньшинств: почти половина респондентов (47 %), по их признанию, относятся к гомосексуалам и лесбиянкам с осуждением (причем такое мнение чаще других разделяют мужчины и представители наименее ресурсных социальных групп: люди старшего возраста, малообразованные граждане и жители сёл); немногим меньше (40 %) — заявляющих, что они относятся к представителям сексменьшинств без осуждения (такую позицию чаще разделяют женщины, молодёжь, высокообразованные респонденты, а также жители Москвы и остальных мегаполисов). Ещё 13 % опрошенных затруднились выразить своё отношение к людям нетрадиционной сексуальной ориентации.

Различные группы населения выражают разное отношение к секс-меньшинствам. Например, характерная для подростков-мальчиков клановость и нетерпимость к нетипичным сверстникам в целом выливается и в значительное неприятие гомосексуальности: в ходе анкетирования ^[46] 1429 московских школьников 7, 9 и 11 классов, проведённого в 2001 году, 24,9 % юношей сказали, что «ненавидят людей нетрадиционной ориентации и считают, что с ними нужно бороться любыми способами» (среди девушек так ответили только 2,7 %), а 12,8 % юношей и 5,1 % девушек сказали, что эти люди их «раздражают» и «их нужно принудительно помещать в специализированные учреждения».

По данным статистики, невзирая на исключение гомосексуальности из списка психических расстройств, многие российские психиатры по-прежнему придерживаются консервативных взглядов. Так, 62,5 % из 450 опрошенных психиатров в Ростовской области считают гомосексуальность заболеванием, и до 75 % заявляют, что это аморальное поведение. Психиатры, придерживающиеся таких взглядов, поддерживают запрет на гей-парады и использование тактики увольнения геев и лесбиянок из государственных учреждений ^[47] .

По словам Марии Плотко, социолога Левада-Центра ^[48] :

В условиях отсутствия выборов, управляемой демократии народ привык, что за него решают, поэтому так сильно влияние государственной пропаганды. Страхи, невежество, социальная незащищенность, привычка к насилию и произволу делает массовое сознание восприимчивым к самым репрессивным, домодерным моделям поведения. Опора власти на эти общественные настроения, очередным примером которой выступает развернутая её институтами и подконтрольными ей СМИ «антигейская» пропаганда, работает и на стравливание городской и прежде всего столичной либеральной общественности с консервативным традиционалистским большинством населения России, которое мы наблюдали уже и в дискуссиях о Pussy Riot, и в обсуждениях «белоленточного» протестного движения.

По данным опроса, проведенного ВЦИОМ в январе 2018 г., 79 % опрошенных совершеннолетних россиян считают предосудительным, если взрослые люди одного пола вступают в половую связь между собой ^[49] .

Другой опрос, проведённый Левада-центром в 2019 году показал, что 39% опрошенных относились нейтрально или положительно к геям представителям ЛГБТ, а 56% — скорее отрицательно. При этом среди молодых людей до 25 лет доля нейтрально/положительного отношения достигала 60%, а среди пожилых составляла лишь 33%. Помимо этого, лучшее отношение к ЛГБТ высказывали люди из крупных городов, с высшим достатком и образованием ^[50] . Результаты опроса другой организации ФОМнибус показали, что 56% опрошенных отрицательно относятся к секс-меньшинства (50% женщин и 62% мужчин), против легализации однополых браков высказались 87% опрошенных и против проведения гей-парадов — 81% ^{[51] [52]} .

Гомофобия в других странах

Геи и лесбиянки в США нередко подвергаются дискриминации и различным нападкам ^{[53] [54] [55] [56]} . Так, например, 90 % американских геев и лесбиянок отмечают, что испытывали личные оскорбления или угрозы, а около трети — подвергались физической агрессии. Геи также приводят следующие цифры: в среднем американский школьник слышит гомофобные высказывания 26 раз в день. Около 31 % молодых геев и лесбиянок в 2005 году подверглись физической агрессии в школе ^[57] .

В Ираке в последние годы геи и лесбиянки стали мишенью для мусульманских религиозных фанатиков, которые устроили настоящую охоту на геев, в результате которой десятки иракцев-геев были жестоко убиты ^[58] .

• Другой
• Gay-friendly , straight acting
• Гетеропатриархат
• Гомонегативизм , гетеросексизм и гетеронормативность
• Отношение общества к гомосексуальности
• Дискриминация по признаку сексуальной ориентации и гендерной идентичности
• Гетерофобия

• Homophobia: An Overview / John P. De Cecco. — New York : The Haworth Press, 1984. — 198 с. — ISBN 0-86656-356-3 .
• Gregory M. Herek . Beyond “Homophobia”: Thinking About Sexual Prejudice and Stigma in the Twenty-First Century : [ eng. ] // Sexuality Research & Social Policy. - 2004. - Vol. 1, no. 2 (April). — P. 6—24. — DOI : 10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6 .
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• Global Homophobia: States, Movements, and the Politics of Oppression : [ eng. ] / Edited by Meredith L. Weiss and Michael J. Bosia. — University of Illinois Press, 2013. — 280 p. — ISBN 978-0-252-03772-6 .

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