This article is devoted to religious persecution of believers from the Evangelical (Evangelical) Protestant churches (from among the representatives of the indigenous population) in the Russian Empire in the late XIX - early XX centuries. The article covers the period from the appearance of the first Russian-speaking evangelical communities (1860s) until the February revolution of 1917 .
The persecutions were carried out using the state police apparatus with the active participation of representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church . A part of the population also took part in the persecution, especially in the peasant environment. At the same time, part of the society sympathized with the persecuted and passively or actively resisted this policy.
The rapid growth of the evangelical movement and attempts to eradicate it by the state have become a noticeable phenomenon of the country's socio-political life.
Reasons to
Although over the centuries the Russian state developed as a multi-confessional [1] , the status of Orthodoxy as a state religion was enshrined in the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire and the Code on Criminal and Correctional Penalties [2] .
The unconfessed state was not recognized. At the same time, the attitude towards other religions was not the same. By the number of rights and privileges, on the one hand, and restrictions - on the other, religions could be divided into two groups: “tolerant” and “intolerant”. The first were the Catholic , Protestant ( Lutheran , Anglican ), Armenian Gregorian and Armenian Catholic churches. This was followed by the communities of Karaite Jews , Mohammedans - Sunni and Shiites , Talmudic Jews , Buddhist Lamaists , and tribal cults [3] [4] .
At the same time, there were confessions that were considered to be opposition [3] to the Orthodox Church, and therefore unrecognizable, illegal and “intolerant” [3] . This is the Old Believers and "sectarianism", including the Evangelical- Protestant ( Stundists , Baptists , Pashkovtsy ) [4] [3] . They were consistently severely persecuted by the state and the ROC.
The persecution of Evangelical Protestants was caused by their active missionary work (arising from dogma) and rapid numerical growth. The number of communities grew, their numbers grew, and the geography of distribution expanded. For example, if in 1884 there were Baptists in 95 points of the Kherson province , then by 1891 - already in 167 villages [5] . On the verge of the 1880s – 1890s, Baptist communities and groups already existed in 30 gubernias of the Russian Empire [5] . The ROC "was powerless not only to suspend, but at least localize the onslaught of the Baptist mission ," noted A. I. Klibanov [5] .
“Orthodox missionaries soon felt the measured tread and the heavy hand of Baptism, which by its strict organization, elaboration of dogma and moral program , according to the centuries-old experience of missionary work, markedly stood out against the background of sects that had arisen on the basis of Orthodoxy, wrote L.N. Mitrokhin . “ Thus, already at the Second Missionary Congress (1891), it was stated that“ with time, Stundobaptism will be the dominant form of Russian sectarianism ” [6] .
Another reason (closely related to the first one) is the active distribution of Bibles by Baptists and Stundists, which led to a conscious outflow of believers from Orthodoxy [7] .
Historical Context
The persecution of Protestants took place against the background of the growth of anticlerical attitudes in society, especially those that had intensified on the eve of the 1905 revolution. During this period, the liberal-democratic part of society fought for the attainment of elementary civil rights, therefore opposition to religious persecution fit into this general political process [8] . As L.N. Mitrokhin notes, as the persecutions grew, “the slogan of toleration was proclaimed more and more loudly not only by the adherents of“ apostolic Christianity ”, but also by well-known publicists, liberals, prominent scholars, leading dignitaries, merchants and industrialists who turned over millions of people” [9] . Thus, the problem of the “schismatics” from the inner church became a social one, became the subject of political passions and reflections on the future of Russia [9] .
For a long time KP Pobedonostsev [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] , who served as Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1880-1905, under the tsars Alexander , served as the main instigator, initiator and manager of persecutions. II , Alexander III and Nicolae II . During the reign of Pobedonostsev, persecution was particularly intensified (a number of evangelical and secular sources use the term `` Pobedonostsev persecution "). Pobedonostsev believed that the admission of religious differences in the Russian common people would lead to disastrous consequences, and would undermine the national and political unity of Russia [16] . People who had fallen away from Orthodoxy simply could not be completely loyal in his eyes to the subjects of the Russian state, members of the Russian people [17] . The chief prosecutor refused to admit that the basis of the intensification of Protestantism lies in deep reasons, reducing everything to the “ignorance” of the mass of believers and the “self-interest” of the leaders [18] .
Pobedonostsev saw his task in strengthening and spreading Orthodoxy, as well as in the unity of Orthodoxy, the state and the people. Given this position, other religions, and especially, “sectarians” could not count on liberalization [19] . Spurring the fight against inactivity, Pobedonostsev put pressure on the governors [20] , the Senate and individual senators [21] , the judicial authorities [22] and prosecutors [23] , ordering the latter to broadly interpret the legislation [23] .
However, the tasks of the secular authorities did not include the struggle for "spiritual purity". “ These Stundists did not do any crime - they live quietly, pay taxes and therefore let them stay ,” wrote one of the governors in response to the demand for the Stundist eviction [24] . Trying to overcome the passivity of secular power, Pobedonostsev was drawn into endless interdepartmental wars and violated the principles of the rule of law [18] . “In fact, Pobedonostsev’s activities were contrary to the realities prevailing in post-reform Russia (an independent court, a relatively free press, fairly close contacts with the West, etc.), and because of this was doomed to failure ,” noted his biographer A. Yu. Polunov [18] . Activities Pobedonostsev met with resistance of the Senate, which. The Senate cashed a number of decisions by local authorities and court sentences against Baptists, and also insisted on strict compliance with the law.
In 1905-1906, legislative acts were passed in Russia proclaiming toleration, which softened the situation of Baptists and Evangelical Christians, but during the First World War, the persecution by the government resumed and stopped only after the February 1917 revolution .
Role of the ROC
The biographer of Pobednostsev A. Yu. Polunov notes that, in addition to repressions, the ober-prosecutor also hoped for educational measures in the fight against inactivity [26] . Their implementation was entrusted to the Russian Orthodox Church. However, this policy turned out to be incapable in practice [27] . Realizing that they can at any time turn to measures of state coercion, representatives of the church did not particularly bother themselves with spiritual edifying activities [27] . The passivity of the church authorities led to the fact that the center of gravity in the fight against inoquity more and more clearly shifted towards compulsory-repressive measures [27] .
At the same time, as L. N. Mitrokhin emphasized, the rapid spread of Baptism in Russia “extremely excited” Orthodox hierarchs. They saw this as a growing threat to their authority and well-being [28] . It is not surprising that representatives of the Orthodox Church launched a “zealous campaign” to combat the “intolerant” and its ideological support [29] .
Propaganda
Representatives of the ROC produced a significant number of “anti-split” and “anti-sectarian” books and brochures of varying degrees of seriousness: ranging from popular brochures with conversations, denunciations, and exhortations to solid theological studies [28] .
“Sectological” literature was published with the aim of combating “sectarianism”, hence its task - proof of the falsehood of “sectarianism”, as well as setting up against the “sectarians” of the population. Under such conditions, literature inevitably acquired the character of speculative constructions, in which real factual material was used only to the extent and in the form in which the accusation task was laid down [30] . “No matter how we imagine the causes and essence of Russian sectarianism, in the end we must come to one conclusion that sin, temptation, is the source of sects ,” wrote the author of one of these works [31] .
Missionary magazines were published. V.I. Yasevich-Borodaevskaya wrote: “Spiritual journals <...> were filled with all sorts of fabrications against Old Believers and sectarians and simply slandered; everywhere there was only a call for anger and hatred towards the Old Believers and sectarians ” [32] .
Congresses
The practice included the holding of All-Russian congresses of anti-splitter missionaries. They were held in 1887, 1891, 1897. At congresses, Orthodox missionaries discussed the operational state of affairs and collected dirt on the “seducers” [29] .
In 1891, the congress, under the chairmanship of K.P. Pobedonostsev himself, in his resolution, expressed the wish that “sectarians” should not be allowed to change their place of residence, and their passports should be marked in such a way that “they should not be hired for anywhere or until life in Russia becomes unbearable for them ” [29] .
Field Activities
The "anti-schist" and "anti-sectarian" activities of the representatives of Orthodoxy were conducted not only at congresses, but also on the ground. From the mid-1880s, missionary structures were formed in the dioceses, one of the main tasks of which was to combat "sectarianism", and from 1888, diocesan, district and county missionaries were introduced throughout the country [33] .
The local authorities, in collaboration with ministers of the church, made efforts to create an intolerable environment for the normal activities of the Baptists [34] . Thus, the Stundist community of the village of Komissarovka, Verkhnedneprovsky district, Yekaterinoslav province (194 people), in 1890 under pressure from the missionary committee and the district police officer, “returned” to Orthodoxy, but after the publication of the Tolerance Manifesto in 1905, it turned into “spiritual stundism” [35] .
Methods
Restrictions on Rights
In the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire, the Orthodox faith was declared "preeminent and dominant." At the same time, belonging to Orthodoxy was not determined by the actual confession of this faith, but by extracts from Orthodox metric books [36] . The law forbade Orthodox to marry with non-Christians (non-Christians) and imposed restrictions on marriage with non-Orthodox (representatives of other Christian denominations). It was forbidden for the Gentiles to adopt Orthodox, to trade in icons and other religious objects. In general, the interests of the Orthodox Church were defended by more than a thousand articles of the Code [2] .
As a result, the “sectarians” experienced problems with the determination of civil status, registration of marriages, burials and births of children. "Sectarians", like suicides, often refused to bury in common cemeteries [37] . The prayer houses allowed to build, then forbid, then dispersed the liturgical assemblies both in prayer and in private houses.
The situation was aggravated by the fact that the normal practice of the time was administrative harassment, based not on the law, but on the goodwill of the local authorities [38] . For example, in 1894 Pobedonostsev noted: “... the special measures taken recently by the Kiev, Podolsky and Volynsk Governor-General, consisting of ... banning the prayer meetings of the followers of the Shunds sect, achieved very favorable consequences, and yet such orders were based solely on the powers granted to ... the head of the region by the provision on the preservation of state order and public peace, and can hardly be applied in those areas to which it is not tsya " [39] .
Prosecution
The Criminal Code and Correctional Penal Code (in fact, the first Russian criminal code) paid enough attention to religious crimes. The protection of religion and religious societies was severely differentiated depending on the degree of recognition and protection by the state [2] .
Crimes against the faith were divided into purely religious (blasphemy, seduction into a different faith, and others) and mixed (blasphemy, murder of a priest, false admission, and others). In the second case, the religious component was an aggravating circumstance. For blasphemy and seduction, hard labor of various terms was relied upon (for seduction into other Christian denominations or schism — exile). The property of the corrupted fell under guardianship, their parental authority was interrupted (those who were seduced into non-Christianity were deprived of the rights of the state). Those belonging to heretical "savage and fanatical" sects lost their rights to the state and were referred to Siberia. The Code also provided for ecclesiastical punishments as additional (public epitimia , suggestion) [2] .
Forcing leaders to emigrate
In 1884, delegates of the Congress of Protestant Communities of Russia, convened by V. A. Pashkov and M. M. Korf, were arrested in St. Petersburg, in which about 100 people participated. On the sixth day, all the participants were arrested and taken to the Peter and Paul Fortress . After biased interrogations, they were accused of storing illegal literature and expelled from St. Petersburg [40] .
The aristocrats Pashkov and Korf were demanded to stop the preaching work, and after their refusal they left the country within two weeks [29] . Soon an order was issued to terminate the activities of the Society for the Encouragement of Spiritual and Moral Reading, organized in 1876 by V. A. Pashkov [29] . The society was engaged in the distribution of the Bible and other spiritual literature.
In 1886, fleeing persecution, Russia was left by the first chairman of the Union of Russian Baptists, Johann Wheeler , who died in 1888 in exile in the city of Tulcea near the Russian-Romanian border [41] .
Alexey Pavlovich Bobrinsky
Johann Wheeler
Vasily Guryevich Pavlov
Vasily Alexandrovich Pashkov
Ivan G. Ryaboshapka
In 1894, for 5 years, one of the pioneers of Stundism , IG Ryaboshapka, was expelled to the police for control of the Transcaucasus ( Yerevan ) [42] . At the end of the term, he left for Bulgaria, where he soon died. In 1895, VG Pavlov emigrated (the future chairman of the Union of Russian Baptists ), after serving two four-year old exiles (in the second exile he lost his wife and four children) [42] . V.V. Ivanova after prison in shackles was sent to a 5-year exile in Poland.
Links and expulsions
The appearance in a particular area of a group or even of one family was negatively perceived by secular and ecclesiastical authorities. After exhortations, in the case of persistence, “sectarians” were subject to criminal or administrative punishment, sometimes exile or expulsion. The scale can be judged by the statistics of the commander- in- chief of the Caucasus region , where only for the period from October 15, 1893 to August 1, 1894, 114 of the most active Stundism preachers were exiled. Given that some went to exile with families, we can assume that we were talking about several hundred believers [43] .
Since 1884, at the behest of local priests, one-by-one decisions were taken of rural gatherings demanding the eviction of Stundist and Baptist families from villages [44] . Thus, in the Kherson province in 1885, at the personal suggestion of K. P. Pobedonostsev, 20 of the most authoritative Baptist leaders were expelled [45] . In 1901, in the village of Pavlovka, Kharkov Province, there was a clash between Orthodox and “sectarians”, ending with a reference to penal servitude of 49 “sectarians” [23] .
In other provinces there were also numerous arrests, lawsuits, links (often repeated). Exiled were N. I. Voronin , I. G. Ryaboshapka , S. A. Prokhanov (father of I. S. Prokhanov ) and many others. In January 1895, V. V. Ivanov was imprisoned in the prison of Elisabeth and, together with criminals, shackled, sent to five-year exile [42] .
Places for exile were chosen in Siberia and the Caucasus. In the collection of documents of V. D. Bonch-Bruevich , several different descriptions of being exiled in the village of Giryusy (Gerusa) of the Elizabethan province (now the city of Goris in Armenia) were published, where at least 30 believers served their sentence, many of whom were not able to earn even for food [46] . Communities were forced to collect money for the exiles and send them by hand, saving them from starvation [47] .
Children's Question
With the approval of the missionary Orthodox congresses of 1891 and 1897, during this period, such an “exhortative” measure began to be applied as the forcible selection of children from families of “stubborn sectarians” [48] [29] [49] . Sometimes this method yielded results: for example, the presbyter of the Stundo-Baptist community in the village of Tsarskaya Grace, Aleksandrovsky Uyezd, Yekaterinoslav Province, Grigory Kuchugurny, seeking to return to the family of four children taken from him and given to orphanage for Orthodox education, in 1890 he was forced to return to Orthodoxy by publishing a subscription in the newspaper "Ekaterinoslav Diocesan Gazette" [50] .
Massacres
The collection of documents by Archbishop Alexy (Dorodnitsyn) , numerous cases of extrajudicial killings are mentioned - Orthodox fellow villagers invaded the homes of Baptists and destroyed their property [51] , stoned windows with stones [52] , broke into the prayer house and drove the prayers out [51] , beat them with stakes [37] , beaten people dragged through the streets [52] , organized public executions with rods and flogs [53] [54] .
The collection of documents by V. D. Bonch-Bruevich contains several documents by different authors testifying to the misadventures of I. A. Semyrenko from p. Flat Oster County Chernihiv province . After Semirenko and his wife became Baptists in 1896, they were repeatedly harassed. Semyrenko was expelled from work, his elder brother ( volost foreman ) appropriated his property. Semirenko was repeatedly beaten with rods, once he was hung up and burned with a cigarette, another time he was clamped in turn in a vice, first with one hand, then with the other, then with a beard, while burning the body with pieces of red-hot iron. Wife squeezed to the blood the nipples of the breast in the split chips. At various times, the Zemstvo head, a volost foreman (brother of Semirenko), a priest, a missionary, and local peasants took part in the executions. Six months later, Semyrenko could not stand the bullying and, together with his wife and youngest child, fled to Tulcea , a town in Romania near the border with Russia, where there was a large Russian-speaking Baptist community [55] .
Summary
For victims of persecution
Persecution caused both internal migration (“sectarian” settlements of Siberia and the Caucasus increased at the expense of voluntary migrants seeking religious freedom) [56] and external (see the article “ Religious emigration from Russia and the USSR ”).
Persecution contributed to greater cohesion of persecuted denominations. As L.N. Mitrokhin argued, deep faith is not subject to persecution, moreover, faith seems to suggest persecution as an “ additional stimulus and evidence of truth .” Therefore, many of the affected believers continued their activities with greater conviction. As a result, the geography of distribution expanded, the number grew. “Communities driven underground… communities continued to operate, covering new territories with their influence,” noted L.N. Mitrokhin [42] . Thus, only in 1884–1893, the number of Baptists more than doubled [57] .
For society
Efforts by police measures to keep the population of the Russian Empire in Orthodoxy led to the growth of religious indifference in society [58] . The anticlerical movement, in which many prominent cultural and scientific figures took part, was expanding [59] .
However, along with the departure from religion in society, the reverse tendency to search for God began to grow. In some cases, it led to falling away from Orthodoxy and transition to other confessions, in others - to attempts to rethink Orthodoxy itself [58] .
Historian ratings
Protestant
Many Protestant historians agree that the persecution of the pre-revolutionary period was a great test for believers [60] [61] [62] . “This period of the Gospel-Baptist movement in Russia was a dark time of brutal persecution,” noted S. N. Savinsky . He compared the persecution participants to the persecutors of the Christian martyr Stephen , who stoned him to death with stones, sincerely believing that by doing so they served God [63] .
Orthodox
As noted by the Orthodox historian V. A. Fedorov , Pobedonostsev could not raise the authority of the ROC and ensure “religious solidity” with tough, sometimes repressive, measures. Both the liberal press and the new courts, which supported the rule of law, opposed religious persecution, the historian said. “Persecution for faith repelled from the government not only liberal, but also conservative activists who were loyal to him ,” wrote Fedorov [12] .
At the same time, there are opinions among authors close to Orthodoxy that the desire of the Russian Orthodox Church, as a “historically dominant” religion, to oust competitors from the “canonical territory” is quite natural [64] . There are regrets about the modern “religious renaissance” and recommendations to the modern Russian state not to let religious policy “into the plane of spontaneous self-regulation and uncontrollable ideological pluralism” [64] .
Secular
Non-confessional (“secular”) religious scholars and historians evaluate the religious policy of the Pobedonostsev period in relation to the dissenters as “persecution” [6] [23] , “repression” [65] [6] [43] , “oppression” [38] [13] , “The widest and decisive persecution” [66] , “the fight against Stundism” [2] , “the fight against inactivity” [67] , “the legitimacy of repression” [68] , the “campaign to eradicate” [29] , “the eradication of violent measures ” [42] , “ primitive repressive measures ” [14] , “ religious persecution ” [23] , “ crusade ” [69] .
As A. Yu. Polunov noted, the persecution of people of a different religion caused bewilderment and condemnation both in Russian society and abroad. In the government, more and more government officials doubted the reasonableness of forcing the atmosphere of tension in the country. The persecutions threatened to push towards the political protest as a whole loyal to the Russian government of those who oppose each other. The practice of religious repression undermined the reputation of power, A. Y. Polunov emphasized [70] .
In art
Fiction
The Stundists' persecution was written: in English - the novel “Highway of Sorrow at the Close of the 19th Centure” (1894) by the English writer Hesba Stretton , created in collaboration with with the Russian writer S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky . It was published in Russian by Stepnyak-Kravchinsky’s wife under the title “Stundist Pavel Rudenko” [71] . The novel “Das Salz der Erde” (“The Salt of the Earth”) (1895) by Pastor S. Keller was published in German.
Memoirs
Works of memoirs (or biographies written by loved ones), fully dedicated to pre-revolutionary persecution or partially affecting them [72] :
- M. D. Timoshenko "For convictions" [73]
- V. G. Pavlov "Memories of the Exile" [74]
- I.V. Kargel “Journey from the end to the edge of the earth”
- I. S. Prokhanov "In the boiler of Russia" [75]
- S. P. Lieven "Spiritual Awakening in Russia" [76]
- P. I. Biryukov "The Biography of L. N. Tolstoy" [77]
Music
External audio files | |
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Anthem "Oh, no, no one in the whole universe" | |
Performed by Valery Surgan |
In 1895, I. S. Prokhanov , having learned that he was under the supervision of the secret police, and fearing arrest, left Russia. On the way, he wrote the hymn “Oh, no, no one in the whole Universe”, which later entered into the collection of psalms “Songs of a Christian” under No. 74. In addition, several other hymns of Prokhanov were dedicated to persecution, among them No. 239 and No. 336 from the collection “Gusli” (“God, my Savior!” And “ To the unearthly country, the path has been given to me ”) [78] . The melody of the last hymn was written by composer Gennady Dranenko.
See also
Religious emigration from Russia and the USSR
Pobedonostsev, Konstantin Petrovich
Notes
- ↑ Dudaryonok, Serdyuk, 2014 , p. eight.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Potapova, 2009 , p. 49.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Dudaryonok, Serdyuk, 2014 , p. 12.
- ↑ 1 2 Potapova, 2009 , p. 58.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Klibanov, 1965 , p. 209.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 246.
- ↑ Minchenko, 2008 , p. 32.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 29.30.
- ↑ 1 2 Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 247.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 241.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 253, 478.
- ↑ 1 2 Fedorov, 2003 .
- ↑ 1 2 Zayonchkovsky, 1968 , p. 227.
- ↑ 1 2 Andreev, 2010 , p. 128
- ↑ Beznosova, 1997 , p. 139.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 254.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 257.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Polunov, 2010 , p. 265.
- ↑ Sekirkin, 2016 , p. 605.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 261-262.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 262-264.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 263.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Polunov, 2010 , p. 264.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 262.
- ↑ P.P. Skubachevsky, “How Grandfather Pakhom Shamed the Stundists”, Kharkov, 1913
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 259.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Polunov, 2010 , p. 261.
- ↑ 1 2 Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 21.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 243.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 22
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 23.
- ↑ Yasevich-Borodaevskaya, 1912 , p. 366-367.
- ↑ Efimov, 2007 , p. Section 2.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 244.
- ↑ Beznosova, 1997 , p. 143.
- ↑ Potapova, 2009 , p. 53.
- ↑ 1 2 Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), 1908 , p. 350
- ↑ 1 2 Potapova, 2009 , p. 66
- ↑ Pobedonostsev, 1898 , p. 230.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 242-243.
- ↑ Beznosova, 1997 , p. 109, 141, 208-209.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 245.
- ↑ 1 2 Beznosova, 1997 , p. 142
- ↑ Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), 1908 , p. 295,296,298,309,337.
- ↑ Beznosova, 1997 , p. 145.
- ↑ Bonch-Bruevich, 1902 , p. 25-26.
- ↑ Beznosova, 1997 , p. 109.
- ↑ Potapova, 2009 , p. 69
- ↑ Biyushkina, 2011 , p. 136.
- ↑ Beznosova, 1997 , p. 133, annex Tab. B.2.3.
- ↑ 1 2 Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), 1908 , p. 335.
- ↑ 1 2 Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), 1908 , p. 352.
- ↑ Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), 1908 , p. 267-268.
- ↑ Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), 1908 , p. 354.
- ↑ Bonch-Bruevich, 1902 , p. 58-67.
- ↑ Nikolskaya, 2009 .
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 245-246.
- ↑ 1 2 Potapova, 2009 , p. 56.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 248.
- ↑ Sannikov, 1996 , p. ch.16
- ↑ Sinichkin, 2012 .
- ↑ Stepanov, 2016 .
- ↑ Savinsky, 1999 , p. 169.
- ↑ 1 2 Saveliev, 2014.08 , p. 93.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 253.
- ↑ Klibanov, 1965 , p. 210.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 255.
- ↑ Mitrokhin, 1997 , p. 242.
- ↑ Mitrohin, 1974 , p. 56.
- ↑ Polunov, 2010 , p. 264-265.
- ↑ Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, 1958 .
- ↑ Savinsky2, 2001 , p. 417-422.
- ↑ Tymoshenko, 1913 .
- ↑ Pavlov, 2006 , p. 194-219.
- ↑ Prokhanov, 1992 .
- ↑ Liven, 1967 .
- ↑ Biryukov .
- ↑ Prokhanov, 1992 , p. Ch.12
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