Cheyenne

Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquin language family . Previously, there were two dialects of Cheyenne language - the actual Cheyenne and Sutayo. Currently there is only the first dialect; it is used on the reservation of the northern Cheyenne in Montana , as well as the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma . Its carriers are about 1,720 people ^[1] .

Most Cheyenne speaks only English .

Cheyenne tradition narrates that the tribe was formed from the merger of two related communities - tsististas (actually Cheyenne) and sutayo (sutai). The first entry about the Indians, in which the Cheyennes can be recognized, was made by French explorer Louis Jolier and dates from around 1673. Probably, their first contacts with white traders occurred in the upper reaches of the Mississippi River in the first half of the 17th century, but they did not have close relationships with the Europeans until the 19th century. At the end of the seventeenth century, the Cheyenne lived east of the Missouri River in the present-day state of Minnesota . They lived in permanent settlements and engaged in farming , fishing , hunting and gathering wild rice . Around 1676, the Cheyenne reached the Missouri River ^[2] .

In the XVIII century, lived along the rivers Cheyenne and Red River . After the acquisition of horses and the opening of access to European goods, some groups of Cheyennes began to go to the plains and lead a nomadic lifestyle . Already at the beginning of the 19th century, the Cheyenne almost completely switched to the horse hunt for bison , becoming typical nomads of the Great Plains .

South migration

At the beginning of the XIX century, the Cheyenne lived on the territory of the Black Hills , but, hunting and trading with neighboring tribes, reached the Arkansas River . Back in 1820, white traders and travelers met groups of Cheyennes in the area of ​​the modern city of Denver , Colorado. The Hevatanio Group was the first part of the Cheyenne who migrated south.

In the first half of the XIX century, in the upper part of the Arkansas River, William Bent built the Fort Bent trading post and most of the Cheyennes moved south, the rest remained in the headwaters of the Platte River . Those who preferred to roam and hunt south of the Platte River became the Southern Cheyenne. Northern Cheyenne settled in eastern Wyoming , southeastern Montana and western Nebraska . So the Cheyenne geographically divided into northern and southern. It should be noted that at the same time they always emphasized the ethnic unity of both groups.

Having moved to the south, the Cheyenne were at war with the Comanche , the Kiowa, and the Kiowa-Apache . The most brutal battle of this war was the Battle of Wolf Brook , which took place in 1838 and is one of the bloodiest tribal battles on the Great Plains ^[3] . Both sides lost so many famous and respected people that the tribes began to think about ending a brutal war.

In 1840, the Cheyenne made peace with the Comanches and their allies, who were never broken.

The 1825 Treaty

The first treaty between the Cheyenne and the US government was signed by General Henry Atkinson, who in the summer of 1825 went to the headwaters of the Missouri with the task of concluding peace agreements with as many tribes as possible. The Cheyenne signed a treaty at the mouth of the Teton River, near the modern capital of South Dakota , Pyrrhus . The Cheyenne arrived there on July 4, and on July 6, the leaders signed the papers. This agreement was concluded with the aim of establishing friendly relations between the Indians and the Americans, establishing trade relations and ensuring cooperation in the event of murder or theft ^[4] .

First encounters with Americans

Cheyenne relations with white people were initially friendly. When in 1839 several people were captured by the Lakota on the Oregon trail on the South Platte River , about 400 Cheyennes appeared in the village of their allies and rescued the whites. In 1841, Cheyenne, Lakota and Arapaho attacked the village of Eastern Shoshons , in which there were white hunters. The trappers fought on the Shoshone side. Annoyed by the losses in a fight with the trappers, Cheyenne, Arapaho and Lakota explored the territory of the Oregon trail in search of white people. Near Independence Rock, they surrounded the caravan of Elijah White, who led the famous Thomas Fitzpatrick . The Indians, to decide whether to attack the settlers or not, confer all night. Most warriors voted in favor of the attack. Finally, the leaders told Fitzpatrick that his unit could continue moving, but warned him that they would no longer allow the caravans to pass through their country - this road was closed and any white people found here would be killed. The clashes between Cheyenne and White Americans continued, but the real war has not yet begun.

Contract at Fort Laramie

In 1849, thousands of gold seekers who rushed into California joined the stream of white settlers moving along the Oregon trail. The tension between the Indians and the white people was increasing. In the same year, the US government bought a trading post on the Laramie River and deployed a military garrison there . To calm the Indians and control the situation, the government decided to hold a large council with the tribes of the plains. In February 1851, the US Congress allocated money to it.

The efforts of Thomas Fitzpatrick, who was appointed Indian agent in 1846, in the newly formed Fort Laramie signed a peace treaty between the US government and the Indian tribes. In addition to the Cheyennes, it was also attended by Indians from the Lakota , Arapaho , Crow , Shoshone , Grunthran , Assiniboine , Arikar , Mandana and Hidatsa tribes - more than 12 thousand Indians. Peace was concluded between the tribes and the boundaries of their territories were marked. An agreement was signed with the government, according to which the tribes allowed to erect roads, trading posts and forts on their territories, receiving compensation for this ^[5] . The Cheyenne lands, according to this treaty, were located between the North Platte and Arkansas Rivers.

Cheyenne Wars

From 1860 to 1878, the Cheyenne took an active part in the wars with the White Americans. Both white and Indian contemporaries considered the Cheyenne to be one of the most violent and brave fighters.

In the spring of 1857 in Kansas, the Cheyenne had a number of clashes with US soldiers, as a result of which a military expedition led by Colonel Edwin Sumner was prepared against them. On July 29 of the same year, the Battle of Sumner took place in the valley of the Solomon . The Cheyennes were ready to meet the soldiers, convinced by the shaman that, thanks to his magic, the white bullets would not harm the soldiers, but Sumner used the saber attack, the Cheyennes were caught unawares and retreated, having lost several people killed.

In early 1864, skirmishes occurred again between the Cheyenne and the American soldiers in the central plains region. There were a number of major clashes, but the main blow the army inflicted on the camp of the peaceful southern Cheyenne Black Cauldron . At dawn on November 29, 1864, 700 soldiers of Colonel John Chivington attacked a Cheyenne village; besides them there were several Arapaho families. The attack turned out to be a complete surprise - the Black Cauldron group was peaceful and did not support the Indians fighting the war against the whites. The soldiers acted extremely cruelly, killing women and children, disfiguring corpses beyond recognition ^[6] . This event went down in history as the Sand Creek Massacre . The attack of Chivington soldiers infuriated the Indian tribes. After the massacre at Sand Creek, the northern and southern Cheyenne, Lakota, and Arapaho teamed up in the war against white Americans. They attacked caravans and stations, burned ranches, killing whites and stealing cattle. On October 14, 1865, the US government signed a peace treaty with the Southern Cheyenne and the South Arapaho. The government pleaded guilty for Sand Creek and agreed to pay compensation to the Southern Cheyenne who lost their relatives and property there.

Three years later, the US Army conducted another operation against the Southern Cheyenne. On November 27, 1868, the soldiers of Colonel George Custer attacked the village of Black Kotla on the Washer River . The event became known as the Battle of Wash . The Black Cauldron himself was killed, many women and children; Besides. soldiers shot over 850 Indian horses. After the Custer expedition, the number of Cheyenne attacks on white Americans increased significantly. The US Army in 1869 conducted a series of punitive operations against the Southern Cheyenne. After the Battle of Summit Springs , in which the High Bison , the warlord of Dogs (People-Dogs), was killed, the resistance of the southern Cheyenne began to decline, but in 1874 they took part in the Comanche and Kiowa uprisings. In the spring of 1875, the southern Cheyenne, tired of the constant wars, began to surrender. After that, they no longer participated in the wars against white Americans.

Northern Cheyenne fought longer. They took an active part in the Great Sioux War and played a big role in the battles of Rosebud and Little Bighorn , but surrendered in the spring of 1877.

Part of the northern Cheyenne was relocated to the south, on the Indian Territory to the southern Cheyenne. Because of the unbearable conditions, a group of northern Cheyennes led by Little Wolf and the Morning Star left the reservation and tried to get to their native lands in the north. Thousands of soldiers pursued hungry, ragged people, wandering across the plains of Kansas and Nebraska , but the Cheyenne managed to repel all attacks and continue on their way north. Later they were divided into two parts. The Morning Star group was forced to surrender in October and was sent to Fort Robinson, where they were starved. And Little Wolf and his people could get to their former lands, where they were allowed to stay. In 1884, the US government formed a reservation for the northern Cheyenne in Montana, where they still live today.

Cheyenne belong to the traditional type of culture of the Indians of the Great Plains, in which the basis of the economy is equestrian hunting for bison . Cheyenne do it from the XIX century . In addition, they were engaged in farming, hunting, fishing, gathering wild rice , which was diluted with a diet from Pemmican .

Turning to the nomadic way of life, the Cheyenne often moved their camps, lived in tipi . Tipi was established by the entrance to the east, the west wind often blew on the plains, and in this position, the tipi did not get inside. In addition, by placing the tipi eastward, the Cheyenne thus directed him "face" toward the sun. Cheyenne camps could be small and consist of 7-20 tipi, but they could be huge - when the whole tribe gathered.

The most important part of the Cheyenne tribal organization was the large family . The kinship count is bilinear . Marriage is matrilocal . There was a limited polygyny . The next most important was a tribal group or community . Relationships in the tribal group were based on the principle of mutual assistance.

Tribal groups

At the head of the tribe was a council of 44 leaders , who led the life of the tribe. It consisted of 4 leaders from each of the 10 major groups, as well as 4 more peaceful or supreme leaders. The main Cheyenne tribal groups:

• Omisis ("Eaters" );
• Hevataniu ("The Hairy Rope People");
• Oiwimana (Lousy, or Scabby);
• Hotamitaniu ("People-dogs");
• Sutai (originally a separate tribe sutayo );
• Issiomitaniu (People of the Hill);
• Yvisttsinipa ("Burnt Aorta" , or "People of the Aorta");
• Wutapiu ("Those Who Eat with Siu" , or "Cheyenne Siu");
• Hofnova ("Poor People");
• Oktounna ("Speakers Jaws").

In addition to the main groups, there were a number of small ones: Mokstakhitani (“Black People” , or “People - Utah”), Moses (“People of Flint”, mixed group of Lakota and Cheyenne), Anskovinis (“Narrow Nosy”, or “Narrow Bear”) , Nakoimana ("Bear People"), Vokpotsit ("Sly White People"), Notamin ("Face To The North" , or "Looking To The North"), Totoimana ("Shy People"), Honisku .

Military Societies

Military affairs were led by the leaders of the military societies, each of which also had 4 leaders each. The supreme leaders had equal rights, while the other 40 were more likely advisers, whose authority extended only to their communities. However, their position evoked respect, and people listened to them. It cannot be said that the supreme leaders had unlimited power, but due to their position and human qualities that allowed them to take this post, they listened to their opinion with more attention than to the opinion of advisers. The leaders were elected for a ten-year term, after which they could be re-elected again. After 10 years, any of the four supreme leaders could call a successor, which his son sometimes became. The choice of the leader was an important matter, and it was preceded by serious discussions. The obligations of the leader were quite severe, and many rejected the proposal to take this honorary post. If the leader at least once showed himself not from the best side (for example, he quarreled with someone, even if he was insulted), he would lose his post.

The Cheyenne had several military societies, four of which were ancient.

• Fox Society ( Vohkesehetaneo'o ); other names are “Fast Foxes Society”, “Soldiers-Foxes”.
• Scrappers From Elk Horn Society ( Hemo'eoxeo'o ); other names are “Bone Spoon Society”, “Elk Society”, “Rattles Out of the Hoof Society”, “Curved Lance Society”, “Blue Soldiers”.
• The Society of the Shield ( Ma'ehoohevaso ), or the Society of the Red Shield, Soldiers-Bulls.
• The Society of the Bowstring ( Hema'tanoneheo'o ).

The Society of People’s Dogs ( Hotametaneo'o ), the Society of Mad Dogs ( Hota'mimassau ) and the Society of Opposing Warriors ( Hohnohkao'o ) appeared later.

Some societies eventually transformed or split into several groups. Thus, the "Society of Dog People" in 1837 was transformed into a separate tribal group.

The composition of these military societies included the majority of healthy and ambitious men of the tribe - from youths to old men - but not all. They constituted the fighting power of the camp and at the same time served as a police force. They were obliged to enforce the instructions and orders of the leaders. Since the national opinion was dominant in the Cheyenne camp, and the warriors constituted the overwhelming majority of the most courageous and most influential people, military societies often consulted the leaders when it came to solving important issues of peace or war. It happened that two or three societies acted jointly in order to exert a certain pressure to take the necessary decision, even if it went against the generally accepted rules and regulations.

The spirit of war has always been encouraged. There was no other way for a young man to gain so much merit, except by showing courage on the battlefield. A sense of valor was instilled in boys and young men: it was clarified that the most significant thing in life was courage. The manifestation of courage and accomplishment of exploits opened the way for the young Cheyenne warrior to join the military community.

The number of Cheyenne in the early XIX was estimated at about 5000 people. In 1849, a cholera epidemic dealt them a severe blow, as a result of which the Cheyenne lost two thirds of the tribe. In 1881, they numbered 5,200 people. Later, official calculations showed: 1904 - 3,312 people, of which 1,903 were southern shayennymi, and 1,409 - northern; 1921 - 3281 people., The southern ones were 1870, and the northern 1411; 1970 - 6872 people; 1980 - 9918 people. Now the total number of Cheyenne is 11,500 people. Northern live in Montana , number - 5500 people; southern - in Oklahoma , 8,000 people. ^[7]

The Pantheon heads Maheo deity ( Ma'heo'o ), the “Creator of All That Is ,” the original source of everything in the world.

On the mountain Noavose ( Novavose ) there was a meeting of Maheo and Scented Magic ( Motseeone ), the great prophet of the Cheyenne. Fragrant Magic returned to his people, organized military societies and the Council of the Forty Four Leaders. Throughout his life, Fragrant Magic left prophecies and exhortations to his people. From Maheo, Fragrant Magic received Mahuts, "Sacred Arrows" ( Maahotse , Mahuts - on behalf of the creator, Maheo), which became one of the two shrines of the Cheyenne.

The second shrine is Issyvun, the “Holy Cap” ( Is'siwun ), which first belonged to the tribe of the sutayo , and later became the mighty relic of all Cheyenne. The Sacred Cap was a gift from Maheo to the prophet sutayo Straight Horns. Together with the shrine of the prophet, the Sun Dance was given, the most significant ceremony of the Cheyenne. The cult of the Sacred Cap and the cult of the Sacred Arrows eventually coalesced into a magical system. The Sacred Arrows were perceived as masculine magic , more related to war and hunting. The Sacred Cap was a woman's magic, which was associated with the everyday life of the people. Common ceremonies arose: when the Arrows were brought against the enemy in battle, the Sacred Cap, which was worn over one of the soldiers, took part in the attack along with them; when the Sacred Arrows showed the male population, they opened a bunch of Sacred Caps. The Cheyenne believed that magical talismans determined the way in which people should walk. An important role in the life of the Cheyenne was played by the Keepers of Sacred Relics. The holy men who kept the Sacred Arrows and the Sacred Cap formed the two main Cheyenne unions. It was believed that through these unions, Maheo transmitted its power to the Cheyenne, guaranteeing uninterrupted life and blessing to the people.

After the Cheyennes settled on reservations, the Sacred Arrows remained with the southern Cheyennes, the Sacred Cap at the north.

An important ceremony for the Cheyenne was also the Massaum ceremony. The ceremony, which ritually demonstrates the act of creating the universe, takes place within five days. The ritual elements include the setting of the sacred tent, the purification of the sweat, the symbolic representation of all kinds of animals, the ritual hunt, the training of hunting rules and the images of day and night. Religious activities are accompanied every day by sacred songs, ritual smoking, symbolic coloring, dedication and prayer. The vows, priests and assistants take part in the ceremony. The last conduct of this ceremony among the Northern Cheyenes was in 1911, and among the southern ones - in 1927. Among the reasons that led to the disappearance of the Massaum practice are reservations, opposition to the US government and missionaries to conduct native rites , as well as extermination of bison and other animals.

• The Little Wolf is the leader of the Northern Cheyenne.
• The Morning Star is the leader of the Northern Cheyenne.
• High Bison is the leader of the Cheyenne Dogfight Society.
• The Black Cauldron is the leader of the southern Cheyenne.
• Roman Nose is one of the most famous and influential Cheyenne warriors during the Indian Wars in the Great Plains .
• Henry of Rome Nose - the leader of the southern Cheyenne at the end of the XIX century.

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• John Stands in the Forest, Liberty M. Memoirs of Cheyenne. - M .: "The First Americans", 2004. - 400 p.
• Grinnell J. Fighting Cheyennes. - M .: ZelObyvatel, 1994. - 222 p.
• Kotenko Yu. V. Indians of the Great Plains. Weapons, military magic, martial art, battle. - M .: Techno-Youth Publishing House, 1997. - 160 pp., Ill. - ISBN 5-88573-005-9 .
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• White John Manchip. Indians of North America. Life, religion, culture / Trans. from English S.K. Merkulova. - M .: CJSC “ Tsentrpoligraf ”, 2006. - 314 pp., Ill. - ISBN 5-9524-2347-7 .
• Hoebel, EA "The Cheyennes".
• Life by George Bent: Written From His Letters , by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (March 1983)
• Liquidation of Dull Knife by Lackie, William H. Nebraska History Vol. 22, 1941
• Grinnell, George Bird. The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Ways of Life . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1923. 2 volumes; trade paperback, reprints: The Cheyenne Indians, Vol. 1: History and Society , Bison Books, 1972. ISBN 978-0-8032-5771-9 ; The Cheyenne Indians, Vol. 2: War, Ceremonies, and Religion , Bison Books, 1972. ISBN 978-0-8032-5772-6 .
• Peter J. Powell. Sweet Medicine: The Sacred Arrows, The Sun Dance, and the Sacred Buffalo Hat in Northern Cheyenne History . Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1969
• Peter J. Powell. Sacred Mountain: 1830-1879 . New York: Harper and Row, 1981.
• Moore, John H. A Study of Religious Symbolism among the Cheyenne Indians . New York University, 1974.
• Moore, John H. The Cheyenne Nation: A Social and Demographic History . University of Nebraska Press, 1987.
• Berthrong, Donald J. The Southern Cheyenne . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.

• Cheyenne Arapaho Tribe (Official Site)
• Northern Cheyenne Nation (Official Site)
• Cheyenne Culture and History Links
• Repatriation of Cheyenne remains
• The Battle Of Turkey Springs And The Red Hills
• Cheyenne perform Victory Dance to honor Marine tank driver
• WE, THE NORTHERN CHEYENNE PEOPLE : Our Lady of Knife College, Lame Deer, Montana