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Spiritualism (book)

“Spiritism” ( German: Der Spiritismus ) is a book by the German philosopher Eduard von Hartmann , the author of the famous treatise “Philosophy of the Unconscious,” first published in Berlin in 1885 [1] [2] . According to Professor Corinna Treitel, the publication of this book has become one of the “key” events in the history of the “German occult movement” [3] . This was one of the first works that attempted to give a “comprehensive” scientific explanation of occult phenomena from the perspective of psychology [1] . According to Charles Massey , one of the founders of OPI , the publication of this book dealt the “most severe blow” of all ever directed against spiritualism [4] [K 1] .

Spiritualism
Der spiritismus
Derspiritism.jpg
1st edition, 1885
GenreOccultism
AuthorKarl Robert Edward von Hartmann
Original languageDeutsch
Date of first publication1885

Book Contents

  1. General status of the issue.
  2. Physical phenomena.
  3. The meaningfulness of the messages.
  4. Transfiguration and materialization .
  5. Hypothesis of Spirits. [K 2]

Spiritualism and Spiritualism

At the beginning of the first chapter, Hartmann explains that the word “spiritualism” is of French origin, but the British and most Germans prefer the term “spiritualism”. It seems appropriate to the author to use the term “spiritualism” to denote a metaphysical point of view, the opposite of materialism , and, accordingly, to avoid confusion, “spiritualism” should be called, in his opinion, the explanation of mediumistic phenomena through the participation of “spirits” [8] [K 3] . He believes that most people who are passionate about spiritualism and write spiritualistic journals have no interest in the scientific study of the phenomena of mediumship, but instead seek "confirmation of their faith" in life after death [K 4] [K 5] . Hartmann considers it to be a great merit of the contemporary spiritual movement that he rediscovered the vast “field of phenomena” rejected in the Enlightenment . However, since spiritualism, in his opinion, threatens to become a "public disaster" in Germany, the state should use its authority in order to interest scientists in the study of spiritualistic phenomena. Society has every right to know about these things, and since it is not able to formulate its own opinion, it only has to wait for the conclusions made by “official representatives of science” [K 6] [K 7] [K 8] .

Research Methodology

Hartmann writes that to study the “abnormal phenomena of human nature” , an appeal is required to persons gifted with an “abnormal” organism. It should be remembered, he continues, that, as in experiments with an electric machine, there may be failures in experiments with mediums, but this “should not impede the study of abnormal phenomena” [K 9] . He believes that the scientific study of spiritualism should be based on "general methodological laws" that cannot be "crossed with impunity."

“First, principles should not be multiplied unnecessarily ; therefore, one should not look for another reason, as long as one is enough. Secondly, one should adhere as much as possible to those reasons for the existence of which experience and certain conclusions are vouching for, and not to take unnecessarily those which are doubtful or not proven and which still need confirmation in order to explain these phenomena. Thirdly, it is necessary to manage as long as possible natural causes and not move on to supernatural without urgent need. Spiritism sins against these three basic rules. ” [K 10]

Hallucinatory hypothesis

The study of “hidden somnambulism,” according to Hartmann, can provide an understanding of the “whole field” of psychic phenomena [16] [K 11] [K 12] . He explains that a “universal medium” should be, first of all, an auto-minomun, and, in addition, it should also be a “strong hypnotizer ”. In his opinion, at spiritualistic sessions, mediums immerse themselves in a state of "hidden or overt" somnambulism. Further, such a medium autosomnambulum “has hallucinations that he takes for reality, and at the same time has a strong desire for those present to see this imaginary reality, i.e. would have the same hallucinatory ideas as he himself ” [K 13] . Hartmann believes that from the point of “scientific-psychological”, each participant in spiritualistic sessions should constantly remember that he is influenced by a “very strong magnetizer, ” whose goal is to “immerse” him in “hidden somnambulism and infect him with his hallucinations” [K 14] [K 15] .

“Mediums, in their state of somnambulism, whether latent or explicit, have such a mass of nervous power — whether it be the strength of their own organism or the strength extracted from the body of those present and concentrated — which no magnetizer has yet developed in his completely awake state; at the same time, the ability of mediums to immerse those present in a state of explicit or latent somnambulism with the help of this large supply of strength should be greater than the ability of any magnetizer acting in a wakeful state. " [K 16] [K 17]

According to Hartmann, in a medium-auto-assembly, the function of the magnetizer is performed by his awake will, which gives his somnambulistic consciousness a certain direction in relation to “hallucinations that appear”. If the “medium is hallucinating” that he has ceased to be a medium and “has become a spirit,” for example, Katie King and acts as such, then the participants in the session will also have a hallucination that the figure emerging from behind the curtain is not a medium, but Katie King [K 18] . He believes that materialization is most often just a transfiguration of the medium itself [K 19] , since when a ghost was separated from the medium during sessions, it always turned out that he entirely “came from the medium and returned to it” [K 20] [K 21] .

Hartmann's hallucinatory hypothesis rejects the possibility of obtaining photographs that would have taken both a medium and a materialized figure, since the hallucination cannot be photographed, thus, according to its author, all such images are fake [31] . For example, regarding a photograph taken by Crookes , in which the medium is filmed simultaneously with a ghost, Hartman writes that it raises strong suspicion, since one might think that “instead of the alleged ghost, the medium was removed, and instead of the alleged medium, his dress is padded with a pillow and in the half-closed position ” [K 22] [K 23] .

Hypothesis of Nervous Strength

According to Hartmann, any physical phenomena of mediumship, regardless of their complexity, are always fulfilled due to the “nervous strength” of the medium [34] [35] , which is nothing more than a physical force that is “produced” by its nervous system and passes unhindered through every substance is “like magnetism” [K 24] [K 25] . The will of the medium should direct this force, “master” it, and the distribution of power depends on the “fantastic image in the somnambulistic consciousness of the medium” [K 26] . In addition, physical phenomena requiring a “special tension of nervous force” occur when mediums fall into “explicit somnambulism” [K 27] . The author of the book confirms that the impressions of organic forms belong to the “most striking phenomena” of mediumship, they are only superior to cases of “penetration of matter through matter”. He admits that the prints undoubtedly prove that in this case there is not the transmission of hallucinations, but “the objectively real action of mediumistic force on matter” [K 28] , and explains this phenomenon as follows:

“If we imagine a different arrangement of the pressure and tension lines of the mediumistic nerve force — an arrangement corresponding to the pressures produced by the inside of a flat-lying hand on a soft substance capable of perceiving an imprint, then the movement of particles of the substance caused by such a dynamic system would again be consistent with by what is caused by direct pressure of the hand, i.e. a print of the organic form would be possible, although such a form, which could produce such a print, might not be present in the material form. ” [K 29] [K 30]

Hartmann explains some of the phenomena by the fact that a medium in a state of somnambulism allegedly combines the “hallucination of the appearing image” with the idea of ​​the need to move a real object and unconsciously makes this movement “with the help of its mediumistic nervous force”, while remaining confident that it was produced by one’s own by the power of a fantastic image that seems to him, that is, through "transferring his hallucination to the audience", he unconsciously inspires them with the idea that the displacement really executed by that ghost, which is just his hallucination [K 31] [K 32] [K 33] .

Mental manifestations

Regarding spiritualistic messages, Hartmann argues that only “somnambulistic consciousness” can be the source of their content [K 34] . “All messages,” he explains, “have content that corresponds to the mental level and views of the medium.” As a rule, it is “below the spiritual level” of the medium and the participants in the session, less often it is equal to it, but never higher than it [K 35] . The author writes that some mediums, with their “mimic transfigurations,” exhibit amazing linguistic abilities. They can reproduce words and phrases “in strange, incomprehensible dialects” that they had previously accidentally heard without paying attention to [K 36] . According to Hartmann, only a medium who knows how to write can “produce an involuntary letter or call a letter at a distance” (without the participation of a hand) [K 37] [K 38] .

Explanation of the Incredible

In principle, Hartmann admits the possibility of the mediumistic phenomenon of “penetration of matter”, just as he admits the possibility of all other phenomena, confirmed by the testimony of witnesses. However, he speaks out against the Zollner hypothesis, resorting to the fourth dimension of space, and is inclined, rather, “in favor of molecular shocks of the material bond in the body, than in favor of movements and vibrations outside three-dimensional space” [K 39] [K 40] . According to Hartmann, neither the bag, nor the cage into which the medium can be placed, will not be an obstacle for him: if he can pass through the substance in a state of sleep, “nothing prevents him from speaking to the audience as a phenomenon, despite all these precautions” [K 41] [K 42] . Mentioning the "expansive action" of mediumistic nervous force, overcoming the "cohesion of material particles" and leading to acoustic phenomena, Hartmann goes on to spiritualistic phenomena related to the "penetration of matter", ranking them as a "particularly incredible area of ​​phenomena." He refers to the confirmed Zöllner’s experiments and the facts of “bringing” objects to the locked room [48] , which were repeatedly observed under the most stringent control conditions [K 43] . He lists various types of “penetration of matter”, such as: threading an iron ring through the medium’s hand, penetration of coins, pieces of lead, etc. in completely closed drawers, putting rings on the table stand, tying knots on laces and belts with “sealed” ends, etc., bringing objects from another room or other houses into the session room, as well as bringing flowers growing outdoors [K 44] . According to Hartmann, a medium cannot only at the expense of will, with its purely psychological influence, cause the mentioned physical phenomena in inanimate objects; the main action of the will is to release "the magnetic or mediumistic nerve force from the nervous system and direct it in a certain way to living or dead objects." Nevertheless, according to him, in the study of any phenomena of mediumship, with the exception of “real clairvoyance” , there is no need to go “beyond the limits of natural explanations” [K 45] .

About the Hypothesis of Spirits

In conclusion, Hartmann gives an assessment of the central point of spiritualism:

“The whole hypothesis of spirits gradually turns to nothing, as one has to transfer from the supposed spirits to the medium - first direct physical actions of the force, then the origin of the phenomena of materialization, and finally the origin of the mental content of the messages. Whether spirits exist or not, this does not concern us here; in any case, if they exist, then they exist in another world, from which spiritualism vainly imagined to bring them to us. " [K 46] [52] [K 47]

Criticism

 
Animism and Spiritism, 3rd ed.

One of the most active critics of Hartmann's book was A.N. Aksakov [55] [K 48] . The evidence he used to refute the hallucinatory hypothesis was spiritualistic photographs. The photographs taken during the sessions, in which both the medium and the materialized form were visible, according to Aksakov, “convincingly demonstrated” that materialization is an objective phenomenon, and not a form of mass hypnosis (see photo on the left). Criticism of Aksakov received support from the occultists, whose publications in the Sphinx magazine portrayed Hartmann as "either a fool or a fraud" because of his refusal to admit his logical mistakes [22] . Aksakov emphasized that Hartmann had no practical experience and did not pay enough attention to those facts that did not correspond to his convictions, but many phenomena “were completely unknown to him” [57] [K 49] .

 
Medium in a trance and a materialized figure. Photo by A.N. Aksakov.
 
William Crookes, Katie King and her medium.

Professor Alfred Lehmann wrote that Hartmann uses his hypotheses “according to how he is more comfortable”: if a materialized figure appears in a session, then for him it is just a hallucination imagined by the participants in the session, if this figure is displayed in the photo, then its appearance explained by the action of the nervous strength of the medium, since "otherwise it could not be photographed." However, the view that arbitrarily uses such shaky explanations is “scientifically untenable” [61] .

Commenting on Hartmann’s statement that the imprints of organic forms are produced by the nervous force of the medium [62] , Aksakov wrote that this hypothesis necessarily leads to the “adoption of the length, thickness and density” of this force, in other words, to what usually serves to determine the body , i.e. such prints should be produced “by the action of an invisible body formed due to the medium of the medium”, - a materialized form [63] . Further, Hartmann says that the mediumistic nervous force can “turn into thermal and light phenomena,” for example, it can produce certain forms, at least “inorganic, such as crosses, stars, a bright field with light points flickering on it” [64] . So, here, according to Aksakov’s comment, the nervous force becomes visible and does not constitute a hallucination. Why, then, the same force that has become visible in a materialized organic image, sometimes luminous, turns into a hallucination? According to Aksakov, Hartmann’s hallucinatory hypothesis is “overturned” by his own logic [65] .

In connection with the Hartmann hypothesis, which explains the physical phenomena of mediumship, Massey noted that the opinion of most people familiar with them is that this hypothesis is “too complex” in itself and, moreover, does not correspond to the facts [66] . Du Prel , citing Hartmann’s statement from the first chapter of his book: “I can’t draw conclusions about the reality of the phenomena under consideration, since I have never been present at the session ... on the other hand, I consider myself entitled to make a reasonable judgment about these phenomena, if they are real, because this is the duty of the philosopher ” [K 50] , commented on him as follows:

“I must admit, I always believed that there is a“ golden rule for the philosopher “- to remain silent where he has no experience, so that they could not say to him:“ Si tacuisses, philosophus mansisses! “(It’s better you were silent, then come down would be for a philosopher!) That’s why my final verdict is that with his writings against spiritualism, Hartmann certainly contributed to ericism , but not to philosophy. ” [67] [K 51]

Publications

  • Der Spiritismus . - Berlin: Wilhelm Friedrich, 1885. - 118 S.
  • Der Spiritismus . - 2nd ed. - Leipzig: H. Haacke, 1898 .-- 125 S.
  • Der Spiritismus . - Reprint. - Fb & c Limited, 2018 .-- 128 S. - (Classic Reprint). - ISBN 9780428351656 .
Translations
  • Spiritism = Der Spiritismus / Translated by CC Massey . - 1885 reprint. - Cambridge University Press, 2012 .-- 138 p. - ISBN 9781108052719 .
  • Spiritism = Der Spiritismus / Translation by A. M. Butlerov . - SPb. : Publ. A.N. Aksakova , 1887 .-- 163 p.

Russian translation

 
Russian translation, 1887

Immediately after the release of Hartmann's book, A.N. Aksakov expressed the idea of ​​the importance of its Russian edition. A. M. Butlerov reacted to this idea “quite sympathetically” and agreed to dictate the translation if there was a shorthand. The first dictation took place on November 3, 1885 in Aksakov’s office and continued on Sunday evenings until February 2, 1886. This was Butlerov’s last work on spiritualism [69] . The translation was published in Rebus magazine with the consent of the author, which he gave to Aksakov in his letter to him [70] . A separate publication came out in 1887.

See also

  • “ Occult or exact science?” "
  • The Occult World
  • " Philosophers and philosophers "

Comments

  1. ↑ Massey, an English translator of the book [5] , noted that the “philosophical position” of its author is incompatible with spiritualism, because, according to Hartmann, belief in “immortality of personality” is a fallacy [6] . According to the conclusion of the German philosopher Karl Du Prel , this "little work" by Hartmann was clearly directed against spiritualism [7] .
  2. ↑ Hartmann E. Der Spiritismus, 1885, Inhalt [1] .
  3. ↑ "Spiritualism is a religion based upon the belief that mediumship, the ability demonstrated by a few select persons to contact the world of spirits, proves that the individual survives bodily death. It arose in midnineteenth-century America and has spread around the world ” [9] .
  4. ↑ See Hartmann E. Der Spiritismus, 1885, S. 2 [10] .
  5. ↑ The story of "crowding" in Germany began in January 1853, when a resident of Bremen received a letter from New York from her brother in which he, informing of successful spiritual experiments and attaching detailed instructions, invited her to conduct her own experiments. A few days later, in a salon owned by a Bremen businessman, “one of the first experiments in woodworking ” was carried out in Europe [3] .
  6. ↑ See Hartmann E. Der Spiritismus, 1885, S. 14, 15, 20 [11] [6] .
  7. ↑ Goodrick-Clark wrote that, in accordance with Hartmann's philosophy, the Ego remains a disembodied entity after death, “contrary to Christian theology and the theory of spiritualists” [12] .
  8. ↑ The naive views of the first American spiritualists were “transmuted” and developed by European and especially German thinkers. They sought to bring spiritualistic phenomena, as far as possible, in accordance with known scientific facts, postulating "new forces or new manifestations of known forces" available in the human body, so as not to be satisfied with explanations that actually denied any science, namely , the hypothesis of "the spirits of dead people" [13] .
  9. ↑ See Hartmann E. Spiritism, 1887, p. 5 [14] .
  10. ↑ Cit. Hartman E. Spiritism, 1887, p. 147 [15] .
  11. ↑ "SOMNAMBULISM, a state of sleep, or half-waking trance, spontaneously or artificially induced in which subconscious faculties take the place of normal consciousness and direct the body in the performance of erratic (sleep walking) or highly intellectual actions (solving problems) " [17] .
  12. ↑ According to Massey, the facts of somnambulism in relation to mediumistic phenomena were “undoubtedly ignored by spiritualists” [18] . Du Prel wrote that somnambulism is “convincing evidence” of the existence of the supersensible world, as it shows that subconsciously “we ourselves are woven” into this transcendental world. Somnambulism proves that “ Schopenhauer and Hartmann were right” when they claimed that the will and unconsciousness are at the core of the human phenomenon [19] .
  13. ↑ Cit. Hartman E. Spiritism, 1887, pp. 41-42, 68, 69 [20] .
  14. ↑ See Hartman E. Spiritism, 1887, p. 70 [21] .
  15. ↑ Hartmann explains the phenomena demonstrated by mediums in spiritualistic sessions, by the action of unknown mental forces, and the materializations witnessed by the participants in the session by their hallucinations. According to his argument, the medium is a powerful “mesmerizer,” capable of instilling its ideas into the participants of the session, causing a general hallucination [22] .
  16. ↑ Cit. Hartmann E. Spiritism, 1887, S. 68 [23]
  17. ↑ According to Hartmann, the existence of a “mediumistic nerve force,” which, in his opinion, is erroneously called “psychic,” is a fact [24] [25] .
  18. ↑ See Hartmann E. Spiritism, 1887, p. 107, 119 [26] .
  19. ↑ "TRANSFIGURATION, metamorphic power of the medium to assume bodily characteristics of deceased people for their representation" [27] .
  20. ↑ See Hartmann E. Spiritism, 1887, p. 137 [28] .
  21. ↑ Hartman refers to reports “on cases of transmission of hallucinations in Indian fakirs and Turkish dervishes” [29] , however, according to Ramacharaki , although the images materialized “from the air” by fakirs are similar to those observed during spiritualistic sessions, “ in fact, there is no connection between the two kinds of phenomena ” [30] .
  22. ↑ See Hartman E. Spiritism, 1887, S. 122 [32] .
  23. ↑ "Man can create. Given a certain intensity of will, and the shapes created by the mind become subjective. Hallucinations, they are called, although to their creator they are real as any visible object is to any one else. Given a more intense and intelligent concentration of this will, and the form becomes concrete, visible, objective ” [33] .
  24. ↑ See Hartman E. Spiritism, 1887, S. 45, 62 [36] .
  25. ↑ Hartmann explains physical phenomena by the manifestation of a certain force, similar to electricity or magnetism, “emanating from the medium’s body” [13] .
  26. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 61, 64 [37] .
  27. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 38 [21] .
  28. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 64–65 [38] .
  29. ↑ Cit. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 62 [39] .
  30. ↑ Этот пассаж философа был прокомментирован Аксаковым кратко: «Данное объяснение представляет с точки зрения физики целый ряд невозможностей» [39] .
  31. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 128 [40] .
  32. ↑ Комментарий Аксакова: «Итак, мы имеем здесь галлюцинацию с подкладкой нервной силы» [40] .
  33. ↑ Рамачарака писал, что многое из так называемых спиритических феноменов в действительности производится «бессознательной астральной проекцией медиума», а не бестелесными существами, пребывающими на других планах существования [41] .
  34. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 73 [42] .
  35. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 142, 145 [43] .
  36. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 75, 109 [44] .
  37. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 61 [45] .
  38. ↑ Понятно, что грудные дети не умеют писать, однако Аксаков обнаружил «в летописях спиритизма» несколько «случаев» детского медиумизма, связанного с автоматическим писанием [45] .
  39. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 56 [46] .
  40. ↑ Цёлльнер «никогда не предполагал», что спиритические феномены производятся духами умерших людей, но связывал их с действиями «неких таинственных существ», управляющих четвёртым измерением пространства [10] .
  41. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 111 [46] .
  42. ↑ По мнению Аксакова, «проникновение» одного твёрдого тела другим «мы не можем представить себе иначе, как предположив моментальную дезагрегацию твёрдого вещества в момент прохождения предмета и его немедленное после того восстановление», то есть, его дематериализацию и обратную материализацию [47] .
  43. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 53, 54 [46] .
  44. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 54–56 [49] .
  45. ↑ См. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 67, 133 [50] .
  46. ↑ Cit. Гартман Э. Спиритизм, 1887, С. 147 [51] .
  47. ↑ Согласно Мэсси, спиритическая гипотеза о «деятельности духов» умерших людей сильно преувеличивалась, и большинство сообщений, предположительно исходящих от них, можно было объяснить другими причинами, которые не признавались. Он писал: «Нынешняя спиритуалистическая концепция смерти, как простого изменения внешних условий, когда якобы существует непрерывность сознания, не выдерживает критики, и мы не можем принять её» [53] . Тем не менее, по заявлению Ричарда Ходжсона , которое он сделал после пятисот застенографированных сеансов с медиумом Леонорой Пайпер , «никакая гипотеза, кроме спиритической, не может объяснить явлений, которые ему пришлось наблюдать» [54] .
  48. ↑ Свой «Ответ Гартману» Аксаков «немедленно» после выхода его книги начал печатать в немецком журнале Psychische Studien. В 1890 году он вышел отдельным изданием под заглавием Animismus und Spiritismus (в 1893 — первое русское издание) [56] .
  49. ↑ Дю-Прель высоко оценил книгу Аксакова, как имеющую большое значение для распространения спиритизма в Германии, подробно обсудив её в своей статье Hartmann contra Aksakof, опубликованной в «Сфинксе» в июне 1891 года [58] . Он писал, что сочинение Гартмана занимает всего лишь 118 страниц, тогда как «Ответ» Аксакова составляет более 800 страниц (два тома). Этот контраст, который «замечателен сам по себе», ещё больше увеличивается, когда читатель узнаёт, что, по признанию Гартмана, он никогда не присутствовал на сеансах [59] , тогда как Аксаков, заинтересовавшись спиритическим движением в 1855 году, с 1870 года многократно принимал участие в спиритических сеансах [7] [60] [10] .
  50. ↑ Cit. Hartmann E. Der Spiritismus, 1885, S. 16, 23 [67] .
  51. ↑ Тем не менее, по мнению профессора Хизер Вольфрам, такие исследователи, как Гартман и Аксаков, с их поисками «новой научной психологии», основанной на явлениях бессознательного, не менее важны для современной науки, чем физиолог-материалист Вундт и его коллеги [68] .

Notes

  1. ↑ 1 2 3 WorldCat .
  2. ↑ Formats and editions .
  3. ↑ 1 2 Treitel, 2004 , Ch. 2.
  4. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. five.
  5. ↑ Theowiki .
  6. ↑ 1 2 Doyle, 2013 , p. 183.
  7. ↑ 1 2 Du Prel, 2012 , s. 26.
  8. ↑ Hartmann, 1885 , s. one.
  9. ↑ Melton, 2014 , p. 118.
  10. ↑ 1 2 3 Treitel, 2004 , p. 14.
  11. ↑ Treitel, 2004 , pp. 14, 15.
  12. ↑ Goodrick-Clarke, 1993 , p. 23.
  13. ↑ 1 2 Podmore, 2011 , p. 162.
  14. ↑ Карышев, 1895 , с. 27.
  15. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 292.
  16. ↑ Гартман, 1887 , с. 38.
  17. ↑ Fodor, 1966a .
  18. ↑ Massey, 2012 , p. xi.
  19. ↑ Дю-Прель, 1895 , Гл. IV/2.
  20. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 269, 270-271.
  21. ↑ 1 2 Аксаков, 1910 , с. 277.
  22. ↑ 1 2 Wolffram, 2009 , p. 42.
  23. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 271.
  24. ↑ Гартман, 1887 , с. 135.
  25. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 668.
  26. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 271, 272.
  27. ↑ Fodor, 1966b .
  28. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 669.
  29. ↑ Гартман, 1887 , с. 118.
  30. ↑ Ramacharaka, 2007 , p. 310.
  31. ↑ Вагнер, 1889 , с. lii.
  32. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 238.
  33. ↑ Blavatsky, 1877 , p. 62.
  34. ↑ Carrington, 1907 , p. 367.
  35. ↑ Melton, 2001b .
  36. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 136, 286.
  37. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 287.
  38. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 132.
  39. ↑ 1 2 Аксаков, 1910 , с. 134.
  40. ↑ 1 2 Аксаков, 1910 , с. 127.
  41. ↑ Ramacharaka, 2007 , p. 323.
  42. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 297.
  43. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 304, 349.
  44. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 380.
  45. ↑ 1 2 Аксаков, 1910 , с. 369.
  46. ↑ 1 2 3 Аксаков, 1910 , с. 101.
  47. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 101, 102.
  48. ↑ Melton, 2001 .
  49. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 294.
  50. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 287, 293.
  51. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 673.
  52. ↑ Кэрролл, 2005 .
  53. ↑ Massey, 2012 , p. xv.
  54. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 677.
  55. ↑ Melton, 2001a .
  56. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. sixteen.
  57. ↑ Doyle, 2013 , p. 184.
  58. ↑ Kaiser, 2009 , s. 69.
  59. ↑ Hartmann, 1885 , s. sixteen.
  60. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 3.
  61. ↑ Леманн, 1993 , с. 242–243.
  62. ↑ Гартман, 1887 , с. 64.
  63. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 138.
  64. ↑ Гартман, 1887 , с. 58, 61.
  65. ↑ Аксаков, 1910 , с. 284.
  66. ↑ Massey, 2012 , p. xiv.
  67. ↑ 1 2 Du Prel, 1891 , s. 380.
  68. ↑ Wolffram, 2012 .
  69. ↑ Аксаков, 1887 , с. i.
  70. ↑ Аксаков, 1887 , с. iii.

Literature

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Links

  • Der Spiritismus .
  • Spiritualism
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