Egypt Foreign Policy

Geopolitics had a significant impact on the formation of Egypt's foreign policy. Egypt occupies a strategic position between Africa and Asia , provides the passage of water transport from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal . Egyptian politicians sought to make the state strong so as not to become a victim of external forces. Egypt's security is also linked to the control of the Nile , on the water resources of which its existence depends. Therefore, Egypt sought to establish strong relations with Sudan and tried to establish strong relations with Uganda and Zaire . Egyptian rulers have traditionally tried to maintain relations with Syria and Saudi Arabia , as well as with Turkey and Iraq . In the modern history of Egypt, the greatest threat to it was perceived by Israel , located on the eastern borders of the country ^[1] .

Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser believed that the country is at the center of the intersection of several political interests: African, Arab and Islamic. Egypt saw itself as an important political player in Africa, promoted its interests in the Third World , was a supporter of neutrality and the Non-Aligned Movement . The strategically important location of Egypt made the country an object of interest from the superpowers , Abdel Nasser played on the contradictions of the superpowers, which allowed him to receive economic and military assistance from both sides. Under the President of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak (since 1981), the country continued to play a significant role in resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict , acting as a fighter against radical Islamism, which made it possible to receive economic assistance from Western countries and the Arab world ^[1] .

Another important factor for the formation of the principles of foreign policy of Egypt was the Arab-Islamic population of the country. Egypt had a long pre-Islamic heritage, which gave it a special identity, and in periods such as the British occupation , the country developed separately from the countries of the Arab world. Egyptian national identity never merged into undifferentiated Arabism , as the country is shaped by its geography, history, dialect and customs. However, the content of the Egyptian identity is undeniably Arab-Islamic. Egypt is an integral part of the Arab world, it is the largest Arab-speaking country, the intellectual and political center of the Arab world. In the 1950s, Iraq and Saudi Arabia were the main Arab political rivals of Egypt, and Syria was its main Arab ally (see Egyptian-Syrian relations ). In the 1970s, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia established friendly relations, but when Egyptian President Anwar Sadat signed a peace treaty with Israel, Syria became Egypt’s main rival ^[1] .

The centuries-old history of the subordination of Egypt to foreign rulers gave rise to nationalism and the anti-colonial attitude of the leaders of this country. Gamal Abdel Nasser sought to make Egypt independent of East and West, a strong prosperous state, confront Israel and take on leadership roles in the Arab world. Nevertheless, the realization of these ambitions was hindered by the economic backwardness of Egypt, this country could not do without economic and military assistance from developed countries and superpowers. Of course, such assistance entailed the threat of deprivation of national independence. Abdel Nasser tried to minimize the problem of dependence by diversifying sources of assistance, which entailed a policy of balance between East and West, trying to benefit from both sides and minimized dependence on any of them ^[1] .

In 1967, the United States supported Israel during the Six Day War , which made Egypt even more dependent on military and economic assistance from the Soviet Union , but this dependence was partially balanced by increased financial assistance from Arab oil states. By the end of the 1970s, Anwar Sadat dramatically changed the vector of the country's foreign policy, making peace with Israel and establishing relations with the United States, which led to the degradation of relations with the USSR and made Egypt dependent on the United States. This dependence precluded the adoption of foreign policy decisions that Israel and the United States did not like, which greatly limited Egypt's ability to pursue an active and independent foreign policy. The main dilemma of Egypt's foreign policy was that dependence on foreign aid was contrary to the desire for national independence, as well as the country's important role in the Arab-Islamic world and the Non-Aligned Movement ^[1] .

Egypt's foreign policy dominated the agenda of the leaders of this country, since the development of the state economy depended on it. A speech on foreign policy could lead to a breach of leadership. In his speeches, Abdel Nasser pressed for nationalist victories over "imperialism", but after losing to the Six Day War from Israel, his rhetoric declined. Egypt’s more successful war against Israel in 1973 under the leadership of Anwar Sadat brought him popularity among the people, but the signing of a peace treaty with Israel was sharply negatively received by the population. Abdel Nasser concentrated the adoption of foreign policy decisions in his hands, taking responsibility for the nationalization of the Suez Canal. Anwar Sadat also tried to make independent foreign policy decisions, such as: a proposal to open the Suez Canal in exchange for a partial withdrawal of Israel from the country, as well as his decision to join the Federation of Arab Republics with Libya and Syria. However, Anwar Sadat, unlike his predecessor, made many decisions contrary to the opinion of the elite and did not pay attention to the advice of the military and diplomats. Hosni Mubarak continued the tradition of presidential domination in foreign policy, but made his decisions in closer consultations with his advisers from the military and diplomatic circles ^[2] .

Despite the fact that the decision of foreign policy was in the hands of the president, the foreign policy of Egypt was the most complex and influential in the Arab world. Egyptian Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Boutros Boutros-Ghali , who had deputies in charge of geographical areas (America, Africa, Asia, Europe) and functional departments (economic affairs, cultural affairs, etc.), had some influence. Diplomats for service in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Egypt were selected on the basis of competitive procedures and training at relevant universities. By 1982, Egypt had established diplomatic relations with 95 foreign countries and had more than 1,000 members of the diplomatic service ^on staff ^[2] .

In the 1960s, a major foreign policy success for Egypt was the political victory of Abdel Nasser over France, Britain and Israel during the Suez crisis . However, other Arab countries did not want to accept the hegemony of Egypt and its vision of the development of the Arab world. In the 1970s, Egypt supported the rebels during a military coup in Yemen , directed against royal power ^[3] . The Egyptian-Saudi confrontation began on the territory of the Yemen Arab Republic , during which Egypt won, which came at the cost of heavy financial and military losses. However, all the foreign policy successes of Abdel Nasser fell to dust after the defeat of Israel in the Six Day War and the loss of the Sinai Peninsula ^[4] .

After the defeat in the Six Day War, Egypt expressed its readiness for a peaceful settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict, but against recognition of the existence of Israel and the predominant role of the United States in the Middle East . Abdel Nasser was sure that the Sinai Peninsula could not be returned through diplomatic methods, so he began a large-scale reform of the armed forces and the War of Attrition with Israel. In September 1967, a summit of heads of Arab states was held in Khartoum . At this summit, Abdel Nasser and the king of Saudi Arabia Faisal agreed: Egypt stopped trying to destabilize the Saudi regime, and in return , Riyadh will provide Cairo with the financial assistance needed to restore the armed forces and return the lost territories. After the end of the Six Day War, the Soviet Union helped Egypt by providing military equipment in return for destroyed by Israel. This assistance has become one of the manifestations of the Cold War in the Middle East, as the United States has traditionally supported Israel in its confrontation with the Arab world ^[5] . In 1972, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat began to seek support in the West, expelled Soviet advisers from Egypt in the hope of concluding an alliance with the United States. Anwar Sadat has established strong relations with Saudi Arabia, hoping that their contacts with Washington will help Egypt in solving foreign policy problems. At the same time, Anwar Sadat considered a new war with Israel as a backup option, but at the same time tried his best to avoid it. The Doomsday War of October 1973 ended again with the victory of Israel. However, the Egyptian army demonstrated certain successes and escaped the catastrophic defeat that was during the Six Day War. Disappointed in the military methods of returning the lost territory, Anwar Sadat again turned to the United States for help. The result of US mediation was the signing of a peace treaty between Israel and Egypt at Camp David. The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt, but the countries of the Arab world took extremely negatively the peace initiative of Anwar Sadat and stopped providing economic assistance ^[4] .

In 1979, the Islamic Revolution took place in Iran , which prompted the United States to strengthen the development of bilateral relations with Egypt. Joint military exercises began between the countries, Egyptian troops began to take part in supporting pro-American African countries such as Zaire. Anwar Sadat hoped to become the main US ally in the region and cut off Israel from American military and economic assistance. His successor, Hosni Mubarak, faced serious foreign policy problems, so it took him almost ten years to stop the isolation of Egypt from other Arab countries. However, under him, Egypt’s dependence on the United States became irreversible: in addition to arms and food supplies, the Americans sent $ 2 billion to keep Egypt's economy afloat. Hosni Mubarak was cold towards Israel and tried to speak out in support of the Palestinian people. In 1982, Egypt remained neutral during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon , which enabled Israel to concentrate on the military operation in the north of the country and not to keep a large number of troops on the border with Egypt. Israel’s attack on Iraq in 1981 and Tunisia in 1986 showed that neutral Egypt made possible similar Israeli attacks on the countries of the Arab world. Hosni Mubarak has attempted to reduce dependence on the United States government. In late 1985 and early 1986, he did not oppose Libya, and also restored Cairo's diplomatic relations with Moscow ^[4] .

Hosni Mubarak was able to reintegrate Egypt into the Arab world without establishing a new confrontation with Israel. In 1983, the PLO chairman Yasser Arafat had a conflict with Syria , which allowed Egypt to establish strong relations with Palestinian leaders. Other Arab states, fearing the influence of Shiite Iran, saw their ally in Egypt. In 1989, Egypt was admitted to the League of Arab States . Hosni Mubarak tried to mediate in the Arab-Israeli conflict, relieve tension between Israel and the State of Palestine. By 1990, these efforts did not lead to a solution to the crisis and better relations between Israelis and Palestinians, but restored ties between Egypt and Syria. Thus, Hosni Mubarak was able to restore the influence of Egypt as a leading force in the Arab world ^[4] .

After the overthrow of Mubarak (2011), during the Arab Spring ...

In early 2019, Cairo officially notified Washington of its refusal to participate in the creation of the Middle East Security Alliance ( MESA ) ^[6]