Timeline of biology

• 460-370 years. BC e. - The pre-scientific foundations of medicine are laid by Hippocrates . The formation of the idea that diseases arise due to natural causes, rejecting the superstition of the intervention of the gods. The separation of medicine from religion. One of the first prototypes of “case histories” - descriptions of the course of diseases ^{[1] [2]} .
• 340 BC e. - Classification and description of animal species (Aristotle)
• 300 BC e. - General description of the plant world ( Theofrast )

• 180 year - Vivisection (surgical operations on a living animal for the purpose of research) ( Galen )
• 300 year - The emergence of alchemy in Europe

16th Century

• 1523 - The emergence of iatrochemistry (the direction of alchemy, which sought to put chemistry at the service of medicine) ( Paracelsus )
• 1543 - The first book on human anatomy is published, based entirely on experimental research on the structure of the human body . ( Andreas Vesalius )
• 1553 - For the first time in Europe, a small circle of blood circulation is described. ( Miguel Servet )
• 1555 - The Foundation of Comparative Anatomy , published by Histoire de la nature des oyseaux . ( Pierre Belon ).

XVII century

• 1628 - Discovery of the circulation of mammals ( W. Harvey )
• 1661 - The concept of a chemical element ( R. Boyle )
• 1665 - Discovery of the cellular structure of plants ( R. Hook )
• 1678 - Opening of capillaries and connections of venous and arterial circulation ( M. Malpigi )
• 1683 - Description of bacteria ( A. van Levenguk )

18th century

• 1735 - Binary biological nomenclature ( C. von Linney )
• 1769 - tartaric acid was discovered ( K. Scheele )
• 1771 - Detection of the phenomenon of photosynthesis ( J. Priestley )
• 1774 - Discovery of oxygen (J. Priestley, K. Scheele )
• 1783 - Refutation of the theory of phlogiston (hypothetical "hyperfine matter") (A. L. de Lavoisier)
• 1787 - Chemical nomenclature ( Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique ) ( A. de Fourcroix , A. L. de Lavoisier, C. L. Bertollet ) ^{[3] [4] [5]} .
• 1796 - Vaccination against smallpox ( E. Jenner )

1800s

• 1805 - The law of vertical zonality of the plant world ( A. von Humboldt )
• 1809 - The first holistic doctrine of evolution ( J. B. de Lamarck )

1810s

• 1814 - The system of symbols of chemical elements ( J. Ya. Berzelius )

1820s

• 1822 - Discovery of isomerism in chemistry ( F. Wöhler )
• 1824 - Carnot Cycle ( S. Carnot )
• 1827 - Brownian movement ( R. Brown )
• 1828 - The law of embryonic similarity is described in embryology , according to which at the initial stages of embryonic development, the embryos of animals of different species are similar in structure, which reflects the unity of the origin of the animal world. ( Carl von Baer ).
• 1828 - The first synthesis of organic matter ( urea ) ( F. Wöhler ). In this way, Wöhler delivered a blow to the widespread vitalistic doctrine of the so-called life force. However, the synthesis of urea for a long time remained an isolated fact and could not immediately shake the faith in vitality.

1830s

• 1839 - The first textbook on animal anatomy was published in Russian (by A. I. Kikin ).
• 1839 - Cell Theory ( T. Schwann )

1840s

• 1840 - Fundamentals of agricultural chemistry ( J. von Liebig )
• 1848 - Discovery of optical isomerism ( L. Pasteur )

1850s

• 1852 - Theory of the valency of chemical elements ( E. Frankland )
• 1852 - Discovery of the phenomenon of fluorescence ( J. Stokes ). Fluorescence in biological research .
• 1859 - Spectral analysis - it was determined that each chemical element has its own unique linear spectrum. From that moment on, a powerful method for determining the chemical composition appeared in science. ( R.V. Bunsen , G.R. Kirchhoff )
• 1859 - Evidence-Based Doctrine of Evolution and Theory of Natural Selection ( C. Darwin )

1860s

• 1861 - Theory of the structure of organic substances ( A. M. Butlerov )
• 1864 - Discovery of the microbiological essence of infectious diseases ( L. Pasteur )
• 1865 - Laws of heredity. Report Experiments on Plant Hybrids . ( Gregor Mendel .
• 1869 - Periodic law of chemical elements ( D. I. Mendeleev )
• 1869 - Discovery of the forces of intermolecular interaction and the equation of state of a real gas ( Van Der Waals )
• 1869 - Discovery of DNA , called the nuclein , as the main component of the nuclei of the cell. ( Friedrich Misher ).

1870s

• 1870 - A. Fick was the first to measure cardiac output using what is now called the Fick principle. The laws of Fick .
• 1874 - The Basics of Stereochemistry ( J.H. Vant-Hoff )
• 1877 - Theory of a single progressive path of human development. Periodization, which includes three stages: savagery , barbarism and civilization . ( L. G. Morgan )

1880s

• 1881 - Vaccination . The method of safety vaccinations, in particular against anthrax ( L. Pasteur )
• 1882 - Discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis ( R. Koch )
• 1883 - The discovery of phagocytosis , a process in which cells capture and digest solid particles ( I. I. Mechnikov )
• 1885 - The discovery that the number of chromosomes in germ cells is half that of somatic cells. ( August Weisman ).
• 1888 - Discovery of liquid crystals (Reiniser, Friedrich Reiniser)

1890s

• 1895 - The discovery of x-rays ( V.K. Roentgen )
• 1897 - The doctrine of higher nervous activity ( I.P. Pavlov )
• 1897 - Discovery of the phenomenon of thermoluminescence ( I. B. Borgman ) ^[6]

1900s

• 1901 - Discovery of blood groups ( K. Landsteiner )
• 1901 - Publication of the work of Hugo De Vries The Mutation Theory .
• 1903 - It is discovered that chromosomes are carriers of heredity.
• 1905 - The term genetics was introduced. ( William Batson ).
• 1905 - A mathematical description of Brownian motion , confirmation of the validity of the molecular-kinetic theory , the foundations of statistical physics ( A. Einstein , M. Smolukhovsky )
• 1908 - The Hardy-Weinberg Act was opened, which helps to identify the impact, potential and risks of a wide variety of factors on the population.
• 1909 - The term “hereditary unit” was introduced. ( V. Johansen ).

1910s

• 1910 - Chemotherapy ( P. Erlich )
• 1910 - It is proved that genes are located on chromosomes. ( Thomas Hunt Morgan ).
• 1913 - The first genetic map of the chromosome is compiled. ( Alfred Stertevant ).
• 1918 - The work On the correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance , which marks the beginning of work on the creation of a Synthetic theory of evolution , is published. ( Ronald Fisher ).

1920s

• 1920 - The law of homologous series of heredity and variability was formulated, which provided a close connection between genetics and evolutionary doctrine. ( N.I. Vavilov ).
• 1928 - A molecule of heredity is discovered that is transmitted from bacterium to bacterium. Griffith's experiment . ( Frederick Griffith ).
• 1928 - Theory of alpha decay ( G. Gamow )
• 1929 - The first antibiotic - penicillin ( A. Fleming )

1930s

• 1931 - The physical fundamentals of crossing over as a cause of recombination are demonstrated. Cytogenetics . ( Barbara McClintock ).
• 1934 - Artificial radioactivity ( F. and I. Joliot-Curie ).

1940s

• 1940s - Synthetic theory of evolution ( Theodosius Dobzhansky, Julian S. Huxley , Ernst Mayr and others)
• 1940 - 1942 - Discovery of the Rh factor of blood groups ( Karl Landsteiner , A. Wiener)
• 1941 - It is shown that information on the structure of proteins is encoded in the genes. ( Edward Tatem , George Beadle )
• 1944 - DNA is isolated (then it was called the transforming beginning ). (Oswald Theodore Avery]], Colin MacLeod and Maclean McCarthy).
• 1946 - The radiocarbon analysis method used to determine the age of biological remains, objects and materials of biological origin ( Willard Libby )

1950s

• 1950 - It was shown that although the proportion of nucleotides in DNA is not constant, certain patterns are observed (for example, that the amount of adenine , A , is equal to the amount of thymine , T ) ( Chargeff's Rule ). ( Erwin Charguff ).
• 1950 - Transposons were discovered in corn . ( Barbara McClintock ).
• 1952 - Hershey's experiment - Chase proves that the genetic information of bacteriophages (and all other organisms) is contained in DNA.
• 1953 - DNA structure ("double helix") is deciphered. Model created. ( Rosalind Franklin , James Watson , Francis Creek )
• 1956 - The human chromosome number was first correctly established: 46 chromosomes in the diploid set. (Jo Hin Tjio and Albert Levan).
• 1957 - Discovery of the three-dimensional structure of the protein ( J. Kendrew , Max F. Perutz )
• 1958 - The Meselson-Steel Experiment shows that DNA doubling is semi-conservative in nature.

1960s

• 1961 - It turned out that the genetic code consists of triplets . ( M.W. Nirenberg , H.G. Koran , R.W. Holly , S. Ochoa )
• 1964 - Shown on the example of RNA- containing viruses , the first exception to Watson’s central dogma . ( Howard Tyomin ).
• 1965 - Started the fight against rising levels of lead in the environment and food from industrial sources. ( C.K. Patterson )
• 1967 - First transplantation of the human heart ( Christian Barnard )

1970s

• 1970 - For the first time, restriction enzyme enzymes were discovered that allow editing sections of DNA. For example, the bacteria Haemophilus influenzae .
• 1977 - Senger's laboratory completely sequences the bacteriophage Φ-X174 genome.
• 1977 - DNA is sequenced for the first time independently by Frederick Senger , Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxham.
• 1977 - Discovery of black smokers and related ecosystems based on chemosynthesis .

1980s

• 1983 - The discovery of the polymerase chain reaction , which opens up the possibility of simple and quick amplification of DNA. (Carey Banks Mollis).
• 1989 - The human gene was sequenced for the first time. The gene encodes a CFTR protein. Defects in the gene sequence lead to the development of tumors (cystic fibrosis). ( Francis Collins and Lap-Che Tsui).

1990s

• 1995 - For the first time completely sequenced by a gene of an organism of a non-viral nature - bacteria Haemophilus influenzae .
• 1996 - For the first time completely sequenced by the gene of a eukaryotic organism - baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae .
• 1997 - The first successful cloning of a mammal - Dolly sheep ( Roslin Institute )
• 1998 - For the first time completely sequenced by the gene of a multicellular eukaryotic organism - C. elegans nematodes .
• 1998 - Discovery of embryonic stem cells (James Thomson (histologist), D. Gerhart)

2000s

2000

• It was first sequenced by the plant genome ( arabidopsis ) ^[7] .

2001

• The first working draft of the structure of the human genome has been made public. At the same time, the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics .

2002

2003

• The Human Genome project has been successfully completed: 99% of the genome is sequenced with an accuracy of 99.99%. ^[eight]

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

• An international project to decode the genomes of 1,000 people has been launched. ^{[9] [10]}

2009

2010s

2010

• Craig Venter Institute , en: J. Craig Venter Institute , assembled a fully artificial bacterial genome based on the well-known minimal set of natural genes: Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0. [1] . Mycoplasma laboratorium ^[11]
• Discovery of endocytosis in prokaryotes (Gemmata bacteria). Prior to this, it was believed that endocytosis is inherent only in eukaryotes ^[12] .

2011

2012

• The results of phase 2 of the ENCODE project, aimed at conducting a complete analysis of the functional elements of the human genome, are published.

2013

• The results of a study of the full Neanderthal genome ^{[13] [14] [15] [16] were made} publicly available. DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals is approximately 99.5% identical ^{[17] [18]} .
• For the first time, a hand transplant was performed ^{[19] [20]} .
• Scientists have successfully treated mice for blindness by injecting photosensitive cells ^{[21] [22]} , which demonstrates the potential for treating retinitis .
• Scientists have successfully cured mice of deafness by using a gamma-secretase inhibitor on the hair cells of the inner ear ^{[23] [24]} .
• Sickle-shaped erythrocytes can be used to fight chemotherapy- resistant tumors by draining the tumor, leaving it without blood supply ^{[25] [26] [27]} .
• Chemists at the University of Manchester have developed a functional nanometer- sized molecular machine that can assemble complex molecular structures like a ribosome . It has the potential for the accurate synthesis of new drugs and polymers ^{[28] [29] [30] [31]} .
• A device similar to a breathalyzer has been developed that can quickly and accurately diagnose lung infections ^{[32] [33]} .
• A tablet-sized medical scanner has been invented to scan the esophagus for disease ^{[34] [35]} .
• The discovery of the functional four-helix form of human DNA was announced ^[36] .

2014

• Ichthyologists have discovered 180 new species of luminous fish ^[37] .
• Researchers at Tsinghua University read the Beijing smog as a metagen and found DNA fragments of many opportunistic microorganisms in it ^[38] .
• Read part of the plague bacillus genome, VI century AD e. Justinian's plague , the first recorded pandemic (world epidemic) of the plague for the first time in history, covering the entire territory of the civilized world of that time and manifesting itself as separate epidemics for two centuries ^[39] .
• Scientists at Harvard and RIKEN have discovered a new way to obtain induced stem cells ^[40] .
• Decrypted by the gene of the tsetse fly ^[41] , the carrier of trypanosomiasis - diseases of animals and humans.
• Dinosaur bones were discovered, which is considered the largest creature so far found that has ever walked the Earth ^[42] .
• In Sudan , the remains of a settlement with an age of 70 thousand years were discovered ^[43] .
• GlaxoSmithKline, a pharmaceutical company, has begun the third phase of clinical trials of the new RTS, S / AS01 malaria vaccine ^[44] .
• The world's first artificial enzymes were created using synthetic biology ^[45] .

2015

• It was shown for the first time that amino acids can be assembled without DNA and mRNA instructions, and protein can determine the added amino acids ^[46] . That is, one protein can partially create another protein from amino acids without genetic instructions.
• The genes of the bowhead whale responsible for its two hundred year life were determined, the largest among mammals ^{[47] [48] [49] [50]} .
• A drug has been developed that accelerates the metabolism of mice and helps to reduce weight and reduce the amount of fat ^{[51] [52] [53] [54]} .
• A new type of antibiotic, teixobactin, has been created ^[55] .
• Soyuz TMA-16M spacecraft was launched for a one-year stay in space. The crew is Gennady Padalka , Mikhail Kornienko and Scott Kelly ^[56] .
• A microorganism Lokiarchaeota from archaea was found in the bottom sediments of the Atlantic Ocean, filling a gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes ^{[57] [58]} .
• In search of new drugs for the treatment of lung cancer, the effect of the suppression of methyl transferase EZH2 has been studied. In cancer cells from tumors with an inactivated BRG1 gene product or with overactive EGFR, EZH2 inhibitors significantly increased the sensitivity to the chemotherapeutic drug etoposide. The results of this work open up new possibilities for the precision treatment of cancer ^[59] .
• The process of metastasis in prostate cancer has been described, new data have been obtained that may be useful for the development of drugs that block the development of resistance ^[60] .
• A mechanism has been discovered by which the incorporation of modified cytosine derivatives into DNA is prevented, and it has been shown that it is possible in principle to use enhanced expression of cytidine deaminase in a number of malignant tumors — a known mechanism of resistance to anticancer drugs — for treating cancer ^[61] .

2016

• На МКС впервые расцвело растение, это была декоративная цинния ^{[62] [63]} .
• Обнаружены бактерии, способные почти полность разложить за 6 недель Полиэтилентерефталат , используемый для производства пластиковых бутылок и других изделий, на углекислый газ и воду ^[64] .
• Открыт гормон аспросин , который играет важную роль в определении содержания сахара в крови ^[65] .

2017

• На побережье Гудзонова залива в железосодержащих породах пояса Нуввуагиттук возрастом не менее 3,77 миллиарда лет были найдены трубкообразные структуры, похожих на те, что образуют микроорганизмы, живущие у океанических гидротермальных источниках . Это самые древние следы жизни ^[66] .
• Получены первые 37 поросят с модифицированным геномом , не содержащие свиных эндогенных ретровирусов . Это в будущем может помочь осуществлять ксенотрансплантацию органов от свиньи к человеку ^[67] .

2018

• Хронология открытия химических элементов
• Хронология изобретений человечества
• Chronological table

• The official website of the International Academy of the History of Science (Eng.)
• Official site of the Department of the History of Science and Technology of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science (English)
• History of Science, Volume 1-4, online text (Eng.)