Stephenson, William

William Stephenson was born and raised in northeast England . He graduated in physics at Oxford University , received his doctorate in the same specialty at Durham University . He won a scholarship at University College London, which allowed him to get a second doctorate in psychology. In 1936 , Stephenson moved to the Oxford Institute of Experimental Psychology (The Institute of Experimental Psychology at Oxford), for the position of assistant to the head of the department, William Brown (Eng. William Brown). In 1945 , Stephenson himself received the post of head of the department, where he worked for three years.

In 1948 , Stephenson moved to America with his family, where he worked at the University of Chicago as a visiting professor at the Department of Psychology. In general, in Chicago, the scientist spent about 7 years. A post was created specifically for him at the National Institute for Mental Health in Bethesda , Maryland , and Stephenson took advantage of the more lucrative post of director of research at a marketing company in Greenwich , Connecticut . In the late 1950s , faced with economic depression, William Stephenson moved again with his wife and children, this time to New York , where he works as a consultant to the D'Arcy Advertising Corporation. . At the same time, Stephenson returns to academic life and begins teaching at the School of Journalism at the University of Missouri . At this post, the scientist remained until retirement ( 1972 ).

William Stephenson was married to Maime Stephenson (Eng. Maime Stephenson) and had several children ^[2] .

Communication Theory

The concept of communication is covered in the work “Application of communication theory” ^[4] . At Stephenson, it is extremely broad, because it concerns almost all spheres of human life. Therefore, the study of communication is interdisciplinary, however, none of the sciences could provide its fundamental assessment. Stephenson refers to the concept of communication language, writing, gestures, symbols, manners and social conventions. To the sources of communication, the scientist includes radio, television, newspapers, news, recordings, films, museums, concerts and books. At the same time, the latter serve as mediators not between individuals or groups of people, but between the thoughts and views that these people share.

Since William Stephenson defines communication as “speaking to someone,” it consists of statements that, in turn, are divided into statements of fact and statements of opinion. On the other hand, in his theory of communication, the author defines the main axiom of the latter: human communication is functional. People give objects certain established characteristics that can change depending on the environment. In general, there are two forms of interaction functionality: communication of pain (English communication-pain) and communication of pleasure (English communication-pleasure).

Communication of pain and communication of pleasure

Communication of pain includes objective factors, describes the subject depending on changes in the environment in which it is located. This type of communication includes statements of fact that do not change depending on the communicator. While communication of pleasure includes all subjective statements that are not a definition of facts, but rather a positioning of the thoughts of a communicator. Thus, the communication of pleasure consists of affirmations, thoughts. Another criterion for dividing communications into two types is the sphere in which judgments are used. If the statement is related to scientific discourse , it will be referred to communication of pain. If on the contrary, to everyday conversation, it will become part of the communication of pleasure. It should be noted that statements in both categories have common characteristics: information content, instrumentality, and the fact that a certain object from the environment changes. At this point, Stephenson defines another difference between the communication of pleasure and the communication of pain. The first cannot entail changes in a certain fact. Moreover, it may not concern change at all. The second, on the contrary, is an objective expression of the relationship between ongoing changes and information ^[4] .

Mass Communication

Regarding mass communication, Stephenson writes that it can be found wherever people are: at the factory, on the street, in the pub. The means of mass communication are auxiliary means to support the already existing discourse, which is being formed in accordance with the problems of our time. It should be noted that the main characteristic of communication is subjectivity , because its formation cannot occur regardless of the individual views and attitudes of the individual. Therefore, this subjectivity is transformed into mass communication, as well as its means ^[5] . For mass communication, the main function, according to Stephenson, is entertainment, that is, it refers to the communication of pleasure. Although, from time to time, issues related to science are raised in the news, they are nevertheless served more as a game than objective factualization ^[4] . To analyze mass communication, a scientist uses Q-sorting , which consists in the fact that: “an individual can independently model his personal system of attitudes regarding complex phenomena, questions or situations” ^[6] . Thus, Q-sorting allows you to highlight the subjectivity in mass communication, because the information it has is the same translation of the thoughts and views of some individuals to others. The views, in turn, may not correspond to the real state of things ^[6] .

Message System

The main problem that is determined by Stephenson himself, which determines the messages, is not so much their content as the subjectivity of their existence within the communication process. So, the dissemination of a message can be communication (a person watches a film - communication is pleasure), or it can only be coverage of facts (a student listens to a lecture - communication-pain). From this, communication acts as a form of interaction between the recipient and the main character through the attitude of himself in his place. In this case, the recipient should enjoy the whole process. Accordingly, the message, in order to be as effective as possible, must attract the recipient by allowing the latter to substitute himself in the place of the actor, before the game. On this principle, as Stephenson notes, the built advertising companies. Another is the message system in the instructions, processing data arrays and manuals, which should not cause any emotions in the person who perceives the information, for the effectiveness of the latter Error in the footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified .

The Theory of Mass Media Game

William Stephenson developed a media game theory that is based on his concept of interaction-satisfaction. Error in the footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified . Stephenson believed that the interaction of people and the media can occur in two ways. The first of them is based on social control , which is manifested in personal views and cultural values ​​that are imposed on a person by religion , politics and traditions . At this stage of interaction, the influence of media on a person is quite limited, because its behavior is already regulated by other institutions and remains relatively constant. The second way of interaction between the individual and the media occurs when certain personality characteristics allow a person to exist and act outside of social control. Only here people get the opportunity to enjoy a mistake in footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified .

Stephenson believed that people strive for pleasure, including communication, easily satisfied with the help of the media. The latter becomes possible through a subjective game, a situation where the consumption of a media product brings personal satisfaction, since it does not require physical or psychological efforts and is a predictable situation, acts as a buffer in relation to real-world problems. Thus, for Stephenson, a significant effect of mass communication is the feeling of subjective satisfaction of a person, which is quite simple and old-fashioned. Mass communication has no material purpose and no practical function, but it can still become an impetus for self-improvement: to contribute to changes in value orientations during the period of social reformation. Error in footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified .

William Stephenson developed a three-way self-interpretation scheme that explains the dynamics of the effects of mass communication. Its components are as follows:

1. Most mass communication provides recipients with a positive experience. Of course, we are talking about the case when the message is positive in content.
2. The principle of convergent selectivity assumes that people enjoy free, personal and subjective choice of content, provided through the diversity of both the mass media and their products.
3. Mass communication is a source of information, as well as gossip, which become topics for everyday conversation.

All three characteristics are parties to the entertainment function of mass communication. However, Stephenson also defines the instrumental function of social control. It should be noted that, although both are functions of mass communication, they exist independently and are not mutually exclusive. Thus, the author determines that the recipients perceive the product of mass communication, such as advertising or films, only from the point of view of the opportunity to enjoy themselves without making efforts, as well as the ability to distance oneself from everyday problems. Error in the footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified . So, people determine the information from which media they consume, according to their need for pleasure. This concept is closely intertwined with the basics of the theory of use and satisfaction , which is based on the assertion that people know media content and make choices according to their needs. Recipient, according to this theory, is not a passive perceiver, but an agent of mass communication. Error in the footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified .

Despite his doctorate in physics, William Stephenson devoted most of his work to man, his psychology and behavior, both in individual and in mass manifestations. Error in footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified . Stephenson's most significant achievement is the development of the Kew methodology, the principles of which are applied in most of his works. Error in footnotes ^? : Invalid call: key not specified .

• Stephenson, W. (1929) Mental tests and their relation to the central factor. Phd. D. dissertation, University of London.
• Stephenson, W. (1931) Tetrad differences for verbal sub-tests. Journal of Educational Psychology 12: 255-67.
• Stephenson, W. (1935a) Technique of factor analysis. Nature 136: 297.
• Stephenson, W. (1935b) Correlating persons instead of tests. Character and Personality 4: 17-24.
• Stephenson, W. (1936) Some recent contributions to the theory of psychometry. Character and Personality 4: 294-304.
• Stephenson, W. (1948) Comment. Contemporary American and British psychological scenes. American Psychologist 3: 547-50.
• Stephenson, W. (1949) Testing School Children: An Essay in Educational and Social Psychology. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
• Stephenson, W. (1953) The Study of Behavior: Q-Technique and its Methodology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Stephenson, W. (1954) Intimations of Self. Unpublished manuscript.
• Stephenson, W. (1954/1979) Psychoanalysis and Q-Method: A Scientific Model for Psychoanalytic Doctrine. Unpublished manuscript.
• Stephenson, W. (1955a) Obituary Notice. Sir Godfrey Thompson 1881-1955. British Journal of Psychology 46: 245-7.
• Stephenson, W. (1967) Play The Theory of Mass Communication. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Stephenson, W. (1969) Foundations of communication theory. Psychological Record 19: 65-82.
• Stephenson, W. (1970/1980) Quiddity College: Thomas Jefferson's Legacy. Unpublished Manuscript.
• Stephenson, W. (1973) Letter to Leslie S. Hearnshaw, dated 29 September 1973. Cited in Stephenson (1983).
• Stephenson, W. (1974) Methodology of single case studies. Journal of Operational Psychiatry 5 (2): 3-16.
• Stephenson, W. (1977) Factors as social skills subjectivity. Social Skills Subjectivity 1: 3-16.
• Stephenson, W. (1978) Concourse theory of communication. Communication 3: 21-40.
• Stephenson, W. (1979a) The communicability and operantcy of self. Social Skills Subjectivity 3: 2-14.
• Stephenson, W. (1979b) Observations on Sir Cyril Burt and 'the Burt affair'. Social Skills Subjectivity 2: 110-23.
• Stephenson, W. (1980) Consciring: A general theory for subjective communicability. In: Nimmo D. (ed.), Communication Yearbook 4, years 7-36. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
• Stephenson, W. (1981) Cyril Burt, quantum theory, and Q: Historical note. Social Skills Subjectivity 4: 120-34.
• Stephenson, W. (1982a) Q-methodology, interbehavioral psychology and quantum theory. Psychological Record 32: 235-48.
• Stephenson, W. (1982b) newton's fifth rule and Q-methodology: Application to self psychology. Social Skills Subjectivity 5 (2): 37-57.
• Stephenson, W. (1983) Cyril Burt and the special place examination. Association of Educational Psychologists Journal 6: 46-53.
• Stephenson, W. (1985) Ten pillars of Q-methodological wisdom. A summary of book manuscripts, unpublished. Unpublished manuscript, July 20, 1985.
• Stephenson, W. (1986a) Quantum Theory of Advertising. Missouri-Columbia: School of Journalism Missouri-Columbia.
• Stephenson, W. (1986b) William James, Niels Bohr, and complementarity: I - Concepts. Psychological Record 36: 519-27.
• Stephenson, W. (1987a) The science of ethics: I. The single case. Social Skills Subjectivity 11: 10-31.
• Stephenson, W. (1987b) Unpublished letter to Sandy Lovie, Honorary BPS archivist.
• Stephenson, W. (1988a) Falsification and credulity in psychoanalytic doctrine. Social Skills Subjectivity 11 (3): 73-97.
• Stephenson, W. (1988b) Quantum theory of subjectivity. Integrative Psychiatry 6: 180-7.
• Stephenson, W. (1988/89) The quantum of psychological events. Social Skills Subjectivity 12 (1/2): 1-23.
• Stephenson, W. (1989a) Letter to Editor. American Psychologist.
• Stephenson, W. (1989b) Old age research. Unpublished paper.
• Stephenson, W. (1990) My self in 1980: A study of culture. Social Skills Subjectivity 14, 1-19.
• Stephenson, W. (1991) Ulysses and Finnegans Wake: A Q-methodological look at profundity (Part II: Finnegan's Wake). Social Skills Subjectivity 17: 1-13.
• Stephenson, W. (1992) Self in everyday life. Social Skills Subjectivity 15: 29-55.

1. Brown, SR, A Celebration Life and Work of William Stephenson (1902-1989), University of Durham, Durham, UK, 12-14 December 1997.
2. Burt, Cyril (1941-02-01). The Factors of the Mind. British Journal of Educational Psychology. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967). American Political Science Review (2). p.514-515 / Electronic resource / Access mode: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1941.tb02708.x/abstract