The ratio of waist and hips , or waist / hip [1] [Comm 1] index (abbreviations STB [2] [3] , ITB [4] and WHR [5] , from the English Waist – hip ratio ) is a dimensionless ratio determined by by dividing the waist circumference by the pelvic circumference (in this case “hips” is the hip area). For example, a person with a waist circumference of 76 cm and a pelvic circumference of 97 cm has a ratio of waist and hips of approximately 0.79.
The value of this indicator is used as an indicator or indicator of human health and the risk of developing serious diseases. The ratio correlates with fertility , with differing optimal values in men and women.
Content
Measurement
WHO Protocol
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) data collection protocol [6], waist circumference should be measured at the midpoint between the bottom edge of the last palpable rib and the upper part of the iliac crest. The measurement is carried out with a stretch-resistant tape while maintaining a constant tension of 100 g. The pelvis circumference is measured around the widest part of the buttocks, the tape is held parallel to the floor. Other organizations use slightly different standards. The National Institutes of Health of the United States uses the results obtained by measuring the waist at the level of the upper iliac crest. Often, non-specialists measure waist circumference at the navel level, but studies have shown that such measurements may underestimate the true waist circumference.
For both measurements, a person should have a minimum of clothes on him and stand, putting his feet together, arms to the sides, and evenly distributing body weight. The patient should be relaxed, measurements should be carried out in the expiratory phase with normal breathing. Each measurement should be repeated twice; if the measurements are within 1 cm of each other, the average value should be calculated. If the difference between two measurements exceeds 1 cm, the two measurements must be repeated. [7]
Practical measurements
Practically, however, the waist circumference is easier to measure in the narrowest part of it, as a rule, just above the navel, and the circumference of the pelvis can also be measured in the widest part of the buttocks or the lateral surface of the pelvis and hips. [8] In addition, if the waist is convex rather than concave, such as during pregnancy, obesity, and with various features of the body, the waist can be measured at a horizontal level at a distance of 1 inch (2.5 cm ) above the navel. [9]
Health Indicator
The ratio of waist and hips is used as an indicator or indicator of a person's health and the risk of developing serious diseases. Studies show that people with an “apple-like” body structure (a relatively large waist) face higher health risks than those with a “pear-shaped” body, who have a relatively large volume in the hips.
The ratio is used to measure the degree of obesity , which, in turn, is a possible indicator of other, more serious diseases. According to the WHO , abdominal obesity corresponds to the ratio of waist and hips over 0.90 for men and 0.85 for women, or body mass index (BMI) above 30.0. [10] The US National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) claims that women with a waist-to-thigh ratio are more than 0.8, and men with a ratio of more than 1.0, have an increased health risk due to the corresponding distribution of fat. in the body. [eleven]
DGSP (Germany) [12] | WHO (UN) [10] | NIDDK (USA) [11] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | |
lack of weight | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
normal weight | <0.80 | <0.90 | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
overweight | 0.80-0.84 | 0.90-0.99 | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
obesity | > 0.85 | > 1.00 | > 0.85 | > 0.90 | > 0.80 | > 1.00 |
It was found that the ratio of waist and hips more effectively predicts mortality in the elderly (over 75 years) than the absolute value of the waist circumference and the body mass index (BMI). [13] In determining obesity using the waist-to-hip ratio instead of the BMI, the proportion of the population that is classified as a threatened heart attack worldwide triples. [14] Of these three indicators, only the waist-to-hip ratio takes into account differences in body structure. That is, two people can have completely different BMI values with the same ratio of waist and hips, and vice versa, the same body mass index with significantly different ratios of waist and hips.
It was shown that the ratio of waist and hips more effectively predicts cardiovascular disease than waist circumference and body mass index. [15] However, other studies have shown that the absolute value of the waist circumference, rather than its ratio to the circumference of the hips, is a good indicator of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, [16] body fat distribution [17] and hypertension in diabetes mellitus 2nd type [18]
Stress
The stress hormone cortisol is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system . His connection was found with a higher level of abdominal fat and, therefore, a higher ratio of waist and hips. [19] Abdominal fat is a marker of visceral fat (surrounding the important internal organs - the liver, pancreas and intestines) and has more blood flow and more cortisol receptors than peripheral fat. A greater number of cortisol receptors corresponds to a greater sensitivity to it of visceral adipose tissue. This increased sensitivity to cortisol stimulates fat cells to further increase in size. [20] Women, in whom a normal BMI is combined with a high ratio of waist and hips, have , compared with women with a normal ratio, an increased level of cortisol reactivity to stress factors and a lack of addiction to repeated stress factors . [21] This suggests that a high ratio of waist and hips can also indicate a violation of the regulatory function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system and excessive exposure to cortisol.
Evidence of the relationship between cortisol levels and the distribution of adipose tissue was obtained mainly in studies of patients with Cushing's syndrome . [22] They are characterized by excessive exposure to cortisol due to the increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system. The main manifestation of Cushing's syndrome - the accumulation of fat in the abdominal area, and it is assumed that this contributes to elevated levels of cortisol. However, this hypothesis remains controversial, since the effect of cortisol on fat distribution is not sufficiently significant to explain the observed phenomena. It is more likely that the distribution of fat is affected by a complex set of biological and neuroendocrine pathways associated with cortisol secretion , for example, leptin , neuropeptide Y , corticoliberin and the sympathetic nervous system .
Growth and development
As a rule, adults with a deficiency of growth hormone, also have an increased ratio of waist and hips. [23] [24] The increase in the ratio in adults with untreated congenital isolated growth hormone deficiency is presumably associated with an increase in the ratio of cortisone to cortisol and insulin sensitivity. Since these people have an increased level of visceral obesity, it was suggested that minimal growth hormone secretion could theoretically increase insulin resistance. However, due to lack of growth hormone, insulin resistance cannot be achieved, and such patients are more sensitive to insulin. Consequently, they are more likely to form an increased level of body fat, which causes a large ratio of waist and hips. A correlation between growth hormone deficiency and the ratio of waist and hips in prepubertal children was also found; This indicator in prepubertal children with a lack of growth hormone can be used to predict the effectiveness of achieving growth response when using growth hormone replacement therapy, for example, when using recombinant human growth hormone. [25]
Males with congenital adrenal hyperplasia , as determined by the 21-hydroxylase mutation, have an increased waist-to-hip ratio. [26]
Fertility
Values of the ratio of waist and hips 0.9 for men and 0.7 for women, as has been shown, strongly correlate with the general state of health and with the level of fertility . Women with a score of 0.7 have an optimal level of estrogen and are less susceptible to serious diseases, such as diabetes , cardiovascular disorders and ovarian cancer. [27] Women with a high rate (0.80 and above) have a significantly lower pregnancy rate than women with a lower indicator value (0.70-0.79), regardless of their body mass index. [28] Men with a score of about 0.9, as shown, are also healthier and more fertile and have a lower incidence of prostate cancer and testicular cancer .
There is evidence that the ratio of waist and hips is an accurate somatic indicator of the state of reproductive endocrinological status and long-term health risk. Among girls of the same body weight, having a lower ratio demonstrate an earlier onset of pubertal endocrine activity, measured by elevated levels of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone , as well as the activity of sex steroids ( estradiol ). A Dutch prospective study of the results of in vitro fertilization programs provided evidence of the relationship between waist and hips and fecundity. [29] The study claims that increasing the ratio by 0.1 units reduces the likelihood of conception in each cycle by up to 30%, after adjusting for age, obesity, the reason for choosing an in vitro fertilization procedure, the duration and regularity of the menstrual cycle , smoking and the number of births in history. [30] [31]
Menopause , a natural or surgical cessation of the menstrual cycle, occurs due to a general decrease in the production of estradiol hormones and progesterone by the ovaries. These hormonal changes are also associated with an increase in the waist-to-hip ratio, independent of an increase in body weight. [32] What is significant, studies show that an increased ratio of waist and hips before menopause is associated with a decrease in estradiol levels and the variability of the age of menopause. [33] Circulating estrogen provides lipid deposits mainly in the gluteal-femoral region, and there is reason to assume that post-menopausal estrogen deficiency leads to an accumulation of fatty deposits around the abdomen. [34] This change in fat distribution caused by menopause can be counteracted with hormone therapy . [35] Unlike women, men gradually accumulate body fat in the abdominal area, increasing the ratio of waist and hips along with a decrease in the level of androgens . [36]
Cognitive abilities
Using data from the US National Center for Health Statistics, William Lasseck at the University of Pittsburgh and Stephen Galin of the University of California at Santa Barbara , found a correlation between the results of children in the test for determining cognitive abilities and the ratio of waist and hips of their mothers. [37]
Children whose mothers had wide hips and a low ratio of waist and hips got good results in the test, which allowed the researchers to assume that the fetus benefits from fat deposits on the hips of the mother containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids that are necessary for the development of the fetal brain . There is also evidence that children of adolescent mothers with a high waist-hip ratio were protected from cognitive impairment, often associated with teenage births .
Human genetics
Studies of the twins suggested that between 22% and 61% of the variability in the ratio of waist and hips can be caused by genetic factors. [38]
The criterion of female attractiveness
The concept of the ratio of waist and hips and its importance as an indicator of attractiveness was first theoretically proposed by evolutionary psychologist Devendra Singh at the University of Texas at Austin in 1993. [39] [40] Singh argued that the waist-to-hip ratio is a more reliable estrogen marker than the chest-to-waist ratio studied at King’s College London Glenn Wilson in the 1970s. [41] [42]
Some researchers have found that the ratio of waist and hips is an important indicator of female attractiveness . [43] Women with a ratio of 0.7 are generally rated as more attractive by men from Indo-European cultures. [44] Preferences may vary, according to some studies, [45] ranging from 0.6 in China, South America, and some parts of Africa, [46] to 0.8 in Cameroon, and among the Hadza tribe in Tanzania, [ 47] [48] [49] with different preferences depending on the ethnicity of the observed. [50] [51]
It seems that men in Europeanized communities are more affected by the size of the waist of women than the size of the hips:
“The size of the hips indicates the size of the pelvis and the size of the extra fat deposits that can be used as an energy source. Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status ... In Westernized communities that are not at risk of seasonal food shortages, the waist, reporting information about fertility and health status, becomes more important than the size of her hips to assess a woman’s attractiveness. ” [52]
By Western standards, women in populations engaged in gathering , have a greater number of pregnancies, a high parasitic load and a high proportion of fiber-rich food in the calorie intake. These variables vary in different cultures, which suggests that the range of normal ratios of women’s waist and hips is often wider than in Western cultures, and the mean values of the ratio of girls ’waist and hips when puberty are reached , as well as the values for women at peak fertility.
Thus, the values of the ratio of waist and hips, used as an indicator of the onset of puberty, or disorders of the sexual sphere, fertility, hormonal disorders, or as an indicator of sex in one population, may not be applicable in other populations. [53]
In a series of studies conducted by Singh in 1993, men used the ratio of waist and hips and the total amount of adipose tissue to determine female attractiveness. In the first study, men were shown a series of 12 drawings of women with different ratios of waist and hips and the amount of fat. Images of women with normal weight and low ratio of waist and hips were associated by the subjects with the most positive traits of the character (attractiveness, sexuality, mind and health). At the same time, the images of thin female figures were not associated with any positive trait, except youth. [54]
Through this study, Singh suggests that congenital mechanisms could be developed in men and women that detect and use the ratio of waist and hips to assess how healthy a person is and (especially for men), determine marital value. Having a healthy partner increases the likelihood of having offspring with hereditary genetic protection from various diseases, and a healthy partner is more likely to be a good parent (Hamilton and Zack, 1982; Thornhill, 1993). [55]
Other studies have found that the ratio of waist and hips indicates that it is attractive, even besides the amount of fat and fertility. Barnaby Dixon, Gina Grimshaw, Wayne Linklater, and Alan Dickson conducted a study using oculography to assess the fixation of the direction of gaze of men when viewing modified versions of a photo of the same woman, and the subjects were interviewed to assess the attractiveness of those depicted. The researchers found that, while looking at the men’s gaze, it was fixed on the woman’s chest , the most attractive subjects selected images in which the woman had a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7, regardless of breast size. [56]
In addition, referring to a 2005 study by Johnson and Tassinari, who investigated the perception of animated walking, Farid Pajukhi and James Liddle suggested that men use the waist-hip ratio not only to evaluate attractiveness, but also as a means of sexual differentiation: figures with large a high value of the ratio is perceived as more courageous, and with a low - as feminine. Pazhuhi and Liddle used this idea as one of the possible additional explanations for why men perceive smaller waist-to-hips ratios as more attractive - because they link attractiveness to the expression of femininity and the corresponding waist-to-hips ratio. [57] On this basis, it was shown that men with a lower waist-to-hip ratio (more feminine) report a lower level of comfort, worse perception of their own body and faith in their own strength, compared to men with a higher ratio. [58]
To increase attractiveness, some women can artificially change the perceived ratio of waist and hips. These methods include the use of a corset that reduces the size of the waist, and the use of linings on the thighs and buttocks to increase their visible size. In the early attempts to assess the attractiveness, the manufacturers of corsets of the 20th century used the indicator English. hip spring , calculated by subtracting the waist circumference from the pelvic circumference. [59] However, this indicator has become obsolete since it is a poor indicator of attractiveness; for example, a difference in waist and hips of 25 cm may be considered very attractive for an adult woman of medium height, but a girl or a small woman with the same value will look undernourished.
Attractiveness associated with the ratio of waist and hips, in contrast to the index of the body, corresponds to fertility, and not to the amount of adipose tissue. The studies conducted by Holliday used computer-generated images of women, corresponding to real women by body mass index (BMI), but not by the ratio of waist and hips, and vice versa. Twelve observers (6 men and 6 women) evaluated the attractiveness of these images while simultaneously undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Assessment of attractiveness correlated with changes in body mass index, but not the ratio of the waist and hips. The results of fMRI showed that in addition to the activation of higher visual areas, a change in BMI also excites brain areas associated with the reward system. This shows that BMI, rather than the waist-to-hip ratio, modulates the reward mechanism in the brain, which can have important implications for the assessment of ideal body size in patients suffering from nutritional disorders. [60]
Another study by Fernam was used as a supplement to the 1995 Singh and Young study. 137 participants were investigated, 98 of them are women. The age of participants was in the range between 16 and 67 years. Most of the participants were students, and 90% of them were white British, and the rest came from Asia (Indian subcontinent) and Africa. Their educational and socio-economic (almost all from the middle class) initial indicators were fairly homogeneous, and no one had previously participated in any studies concerning the shape of the female body or attractiveness. It was predicted that the effect of the size of the female breast on the judgment of attractiveness and age would depend on the total body fat and the ratio of waist to hips. [61]
All participants received a booklet with eight images. Each figure was defined as full or thin, with a feminine or masculine ratio of waist and hips, and with large breasts or with small breasts. Participants rated the four personal qualities of the women depicted (attractiveness, health, femininity, and kindness / understanding).
When assessments of attractiveness were made, it was generally found that the contribution of all factors — breast size, waist-to-hips ratio, and weight — was important. The female subjects rated figures of low waist-hip ratio as attractive, healthy, feminine, and, in the case of full figures, kind and understanding, more so than male subjects did. This finding is particularly interesting, as most previous studies have shown that young women idealize the shape of women's bodies solely on the basis of thinness. Regarding the size of the female breast of thin figures, it turned out that a large or small breast does not seem to affect the assessment of attractiveness or kindness / understanding, and a large breast size only slightly increased the health and femininity scores. However, the full figure with a high ratio of waist and hips and big breasts was rated by all participants as the least attractive and healthy.
The ratio of waist and hips is also a reliable hint for determining sex, and it is assumed that "people representing gender mismatch between waist and hips (women with a high ratio or men with a low) can be considered unattractive to the opposite sex." [62]
Effect of diet
A number of studies were conducted with an emphasis on diet composition, with respect to changes in waist circumference corrected to body mass index.
Wholemeal, ready-to-eat oatmeal as part of a diet reduces cholesterol low-density lipoprotein . Weight loss did not differ between groups . [63]
The average annual change in waist circumference was more than 3 times greater than the group using white bread compared to the group using a diet with a predominance of fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy products and whole-grain products, and with a reduced content of red and processed meat, fast food and carbonated drinks. [64]
A 2011 study suggested that a diet that increased intake of fruits and dairy products and reduced intake of white bread, processed meat, margarine, and sugary drinks could help prevent the accumulation of abdominal fat. [65]
Comments
- ↑ also the waist / hip ratio ( Sakhrudin Safarov,. Entertaining Encyclopedia of a Person. - 2017-09-05. - p. 89. - 369 p. - ISBN 9785457879454. ), Waist / Hip Index ( Endocrinology Problems . - Medicine, 2001. - T. 47. - p. 4. - 360 p. )
See also
- Body Volume Index
- The ratio of numbers
- Physical attractiveness
- Sex drive
Notes
- ↑ Boris Leonidovich Smolyansky. Osteoporosis treatment . - OLMA Media Group, 2006. - p. 111. - 256 p. - ISBN 9785765447598 .
- ↑ Robin Dunbar. The science of love and treason . - Liters, 2017-09-05. - p. 116. - 274 p. - ISBN 9785040115358 .
- ↑ Rajendra Sharma. A health book from a doctor who knows the secret of youth . - Liters, 2017-09-05. - p. 76. - 492 p. - ISBN 9785457725102 .
- ↑ The team of authors. Problems of medicine and biology . - Liters, 2017-09-05. - p. 394. - 1123 p. - ISBN 9785040021949 .
- ↑ Jack Palmer. Evolutionary psychology: Secrets of the behavior of Homo sapiens . - 162: OLMA Media Group, 2003. - 382 p. - ISBN 9785938780941 .
- ↑ STEPwise approach to surveillance (STEPS) . World Health Organization. The appeal date is March 21, 2012.
- Ist Waist Circumference and Hip Ratio Report for a WHO Expert Consultation . World Health Organization (December 11, 2008). The appeal date is March 21, 2012.
- Is measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured Waist To Hip Calculator Archived April 8, 2011. at University of Maryland Medical System. Retrieved Dec 2010
- ↑ Brown JE, Potter JD, Jacobs DR, Kopher RA, Rourke MJ, Barosso GM, Hannan PJ, Schmid LA Maternity Rifle as a Predictor of Newborn Size: Results of the Diana Project (eng.) // Epidemiology : journal. - 1996. - Vol. 7 , no. 1 . - P. 62-6 . - DOI : 10.1097 / 00001648-199601000-00011 . - PMID 8664403 .
- 2 1 2 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241501491_eng.pdf
- ↑ 1 2 Waist to Hip Ratio . freedieting.com .
- ↑ S 1- Leitlinie Vorsorgeuntersuchung im Sport. 2007 Archived copy from January 22, 2016 on Wayback Machine Dt. Gesellschaft für Sportmedizin und Prävention eV (DGSP)
- GM Price GM, Uauy R., Breeze E., Bullet CJ, Fletcher AE, Weight Ratio .) // Am. J. Clin. Nutr. : journal. - 2006. - August ( vol. 84 , no. 2 ). - P. 449-460 . - PMID 16895897 .
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- Ray Murray, R. Partial growth hormone deficiency is associated with an adverse cardiovascular risk and increased carotid intima-medial thickness (Eng.) // Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford): journal. - 2010. - Vol. 73 , no. 4 - P. 508-515 .
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- SenEsen, I. Growth Hormone and IGF Research: journal. - 2013. - Vol. 23 , no. 5 - P. 196-199 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.ghir.2013.07.001 . - PMID 23890535 .
- ↑ Henrik Falhammar, Helena Filipsson Nyström, Anna Wedell, Marja Thorén. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency ( European ) // European Journal of Endocrinology. - 2011-02-01. - Vol. 164 , iss. 2 - P. 285-293 . - ISSN 1479-683X 0804-4643, 1479-683X . - DOI : 10.1530 / eje-10-0877 .
- Rules The Rules of Attraction in the Game of Love (Undeclared) .
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- ↑ Zaadstra BM, Seidell JC, Van Noord PA, te Velde ER, Habbema JD, Vrieswijk B., Karbaat J. Fat and female fecundity: a prospective study of the concept of body fat distribution and conception rates (eng.) // BMJ : journal . - 1993. - Vol. 306 , no. 6876 . - P. 484-487 . - DOI : 10.1136 / bmj.306.6876.484 . - PMID 8448457 .
- ↑ Singh. Romance of the waist-to-hip ratio (English) // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology : journal. - 1993a. - Vol. 65 , no. 2 - P. 293-307 . - DOI : 10.1037 / 0022-3514.65.2.293 . - PMID 8366421 .
- ↑ Singh. Body shape and women's attractiveness. The critical role of the waist-to-hip ratio (English) // Human Nature: journal. - 1993b. - Vol. 4 , no. 3 - P. 297–321 . - DOI : 10.1007 / bf02692203 . - PMID 24214368 .
- ↑ Cagnacci, A; Zanin, R; Cannoletta, M; Generali, M; Caretto, S; Volpe, A. Menopause, estrogens, progestins, or their combination on body weight and anthropometric measure (English) // Fertility and Sterility: journal. - 2007. - Vol. 88 , no. 6 - P. 1603-1608 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.fertnstert.2007.01.039 . - PMID 17481628 .
- ↑ Freeman, EW; Sammel, MD; Lin, H; Gracia, CR Obesity and Angloids (Men .) // Menopause: journal. - 2007. - Vol. 17 , no. 4 - P. 718-726 . - DOI : 10.1097 / gme.0b013e3181cec85d . - PMID 20216473 .
- ↑ Cagnacci et al., 2007
- ↑ Genazzani, AR; Gambacciani, M. Effect of climacteric transition and hormone replacement (eng.) // Gynecological Endocrinology : journal. - 2006. - Vol. 22 , no. 3 - P. 145-150 . - DOI : 10.1080 / 09513590600629092 . - PMID 16835076 .
- ↑ Samaras, K; Campbell, LV The non-genetic determinants of central adiposity ( Neopr .) // The International Journal of Obesity and the International Journal of Obesity. - 1997. - Vol. 21 , No. 10 . - p . 839-845 . - DOI : 10.1038 / sj.ijo.0800502 .
- ↑ Lassek, W .; It is a gluteofemoral fat and a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources? (English) // Evolution and Human Behavior : journal. - 2008. - January ( vol. 29 , no. 1 ). - P. 26—34 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.evolhumbehav.2007.07.07.005 .
- Pear 'Pear shaped' genes found - NHS Choices - Health News . www.nhs.uk.
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- ↑ Buss, David. The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating . - second. - New York: Basic Books. - P. 56.
- ↑ Wilson, Glenn D .; Brachindale, Anthony H. Psychological correlates of sexual attractiveness: (English) // Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal : journal. - 1974. - Vol. 2 - P. 30-4 . - DOI : 10.2224 / sbp.1974.2.1.30 .
- ↑ Wilson, Glenn; Nias, David; Brazendale, Anthony. Vital Statistics, Perceived Sexual Attractiveness, and Response to Risque Humor (Eng.) // The Journal of Social Psychology : journal. - 1975. - Vol. 95 , no. 2 - P. 201—205 . - DOI : 10.1080 / 00224545.1975.9918705 .
- ↑ Perfect waist-to-hip ratio is 0.7
- ↑ Singh, Devendra; Young, Robert K. Body Weight, Breasts, and Hips: Female Athletes and Desirability for Relationships (Eng.) // Ethology and Sociobiology : journal. - 2001. - 27 June ( vol. 16 , no. 6 ). - P. 483-507 . - DOI : 10.1016 / 0162-3095 (95) 00074-7 . Archived November 7, 2011.
- ↑ Fisher ML, Voracek M. The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness (Eng.) // J Cosmet Dermatol: journal. - 2006. - June ( vol. 5 , no. 2 ). - P. 190-194 . - DOI : 10.1111 / j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x . - PMID 17173598 .
- Ix Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Li B., ique Am Am Am Am // Am J Hum Biol : journal. - 2007. - January ( vol. 19 , no. 1 ). - P. 88-95 . - DOI : 10.1002 / ajhb.20584 . - PMID 17160976 .
- ↑ Marlowe, F; Apicella, C; Reed, D. Men's preferences for women’s waist-to-hip ratio in two societies (Eng.) // Evolution and Human Behavior : journal. - 2005. - Vol. 26 , no. 6 P. 458-468 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005 . Archived June 1, 2014.
- ↑ Marlowe, F .; Wetsman, A. Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology (Eng.) // Personality and Individual Differences : journal. - 2001. - Vol. 30 , no. 3 - P. 481-489 . - DOI : 10.1016 / S0191-8869 (00) 00039-8 . Archived June 30, 2014.
- Ix Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Morgan B., Anderson MJ , Cameroon (Eng.) // Arch Sex Behav : journal. - 2007. - June ( vol. 36 , no. 3 ). - P. 369-375 . - DOI : 10.1007 / s10508-006-9093-8 . - PMID 17136587 .
- ↑ Freedman RE, Carter MM, Sbrocco T., Gray JJ (eng.) // Eat Behav: journal. - 2007. - August ( vol. 8 , no. 3 ). - P. 319-333 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.eatbeh.2006.11.008 . - PMID 17606230 .
- J Freedman RE, Carter MM, Sbrocco T., Gray JJ nic Be ratio a a : journal. - 2004. - July ( vol. 5 , no. 3 ). - P. 191-198 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.eatbeh.2004.01.002 . - PMID 15135331 .
- M. Rozmus-Wrzesinska M., Pawlowski B. Men's waistline compared with changes in hip size (Eng.) // Biol Psychol : journal. - 2005. - March ( vol. 68 , no. 3 ). - P. 299-308 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.biopsycho 2004.04.007 . - PMID 15620796 .
- ↑ Buss, David M. The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology : [ eng ] . - John Wiley & Sons, 2005-07-15. - ISBN 9780471727224 .
- ↑ Singh, Devendra. Is thin really beautiful and good? Relationship between waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and female attractiveness (Eng.) // Personality and Individual Differences : journal. - 1994. - 1 January ( vol. 16 , no. 1 ). - P. 123-132 . - DOI : 10.1016 / 0191-8869 (94) 90116-3 .
- ↑ Singh, Devendra; Young, Robert K. Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, breasts, and hips: Female Ethnic and Sociobiology : journal. - 1995. - 1 November ( vol. 16 , no. 6 ). - P. 483-507 . - DOI : 10.1016 / 0162-3095 (95) 00074-7 .
- ↑ Dixson, Barnaby J.; Grimshaw, Gina M .; Linklater, Wayne L .; Dixson, Alan F. Eye-tracking Ratio of Breastplay for Women (English) // Archives of Sexual Behavior : journal. - 2011. - 1 February ( vol. 40 , no. 1 ). P. 43-50 . - ISSN 1573-2800 . - DOI : 10.1007 / s10508-009-9523-5 . - PMID 19688590 .
- ↑ Pazhoohi F., Liddle JR IDENTIFYING FEMININE AND MASCULINE RANGES FOR WAIST-TO-HIP RATIO (Eng.) // Journal of Social, Evolutionary & Cultural Psychology: journal. - 2012. - Vol. 6 , no. 2 - P. 227-232 . - DOI : 10.1037 / h0099212 .
- ↑ Pazhoohi F., Hosseinchari M., Doyle JF Iranian men's waist-to-hip ratios, shoulder-to-hip ratios, body esteem and self-efficacy (Eng.) // Journal of Evolutionary Psychology : journal. - 2012. - Vol. 10 , no. 2 - P. 61—67 . - DOI : 10.1556 / jep.10.2012.2.2 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link )
- ↑ Bald . corsetiere.net .
- IE Holliday IE BMI not modulates modulation of the female female bodies (English) // PLoS ONE : journal. - 2011. - Vol. 6 , no. 11 - DOI : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0027255 .
- ↑ Furnham, Adrian, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland. "The Role of Body Weight, Waist-to-Hip Ratio, and Breast Size in Springs." Sex Roles 39.3-4 (nd): 311-26.
- ↑ Identifying feminine and masculine ranges for the Waist-to-Hip ratio (Eng.) // Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology : journal. - 2012. - June ( vol. 6 , no. 2 ). - P. 227-232 . - DOI : 10.1037 / h0099212 .
- ↑↑ grainle ready ready o cere / Journal of the American Dietetic Association : journal. - 2010. - Vol. 110 , no. 2 - P. 205-214 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.jada.2009.10.037 . - PMID 20102847 .
- ↑ Dietary patterns and body circumference in adults (Eng.) // The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition : journal. - 2003. - Vol. 77 , no. 6 P. 1417-1425 . - PMID 12791618 .
- For Food composition of the body mass index (English) // PLoS ONE : journal. - 2011. - Vol. 6 , no. 8 - P. e23384 . - DOI : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0023384 . - PMID 21858094 .
Literature
- Karremans JC, Frankenhuis WE, Arons S. (2010), “Blind men prefer a low waist-to-hip ratio”, Evolution and Human Behavior , 31: 182–186; DOI : 10.1016 / j.evolhumbehav.2009.10.001 .
Links
- Mortality Risk Of Older Persons " - EurekAlert August 8, 2006
- Waist-hip ratio on-line calculator