Communication

Phylogenetic development of communication

Phylogenesis is the historical formation of a group of organisms ^[3] , in this case the development of human society.

According to the American psychologist and specialist in the study of communication and cooperation M. Tomasello , and its cooperative model of human communication, the first human forms of communication were indicative and visual (iconic) gestures ^[4] .

Ontogenetic development of communication

Ontogenesis is the individual development of the organism, in this case the development of the human individual.

Emotional communication of a child with people begins from the third month of life (a revitalization complex), the development of the verbal language of communication occurs at the age of about a year.

Up to three months, the main means of communication are primitive facial expressions and elementary gesticulation , communication is a means of achieving satisfaction of physiological needs. In the period from 8-10 months to one and a half years passes the stage of verbal-non-verbal communication, aimed at satisfying cognitive needs. In the period from one and a half to three years, business and gaming communication appear; from three to 6-7 years old skills of plot-role communication develop ^[5] .

Transaction - a unit of communication between people, communicative fact, is used in some areas of psychology. In accordance with the direction of the transaction, there are three types of communications:

• Frontal communication is a type of communication in which transactions go in one direction from the speaker to many listeners, according to the principle “one says - the rest are silent.” If, for example, during a lecture a student asks a lecturer a question, then there may be a dialogue between the student and the lecturer, but the type of communication remains frontal, since at the time when one of them speaks, the principle “one says - the rest are silent” .
• Dialogue - a type of communication in which transactions go in both directions between two interlocutors.
• Indirect communication is a type of communication in which transactions go in both directions through information recorded in some form, for example, through text, sound or video, picture or diagram .

Imitation

Due to imitation, new forms of behavior can be learned, and imitation can be conducted both at the level of reproducible actions themselves and at the level of awareness of the meaning of these actions.

Imitative behavior may be unconscious - such as, for example, "infectious" yawning . It can be both directed and unconscious ^[6] .

Behind imitation are various psychological mechanisms ^[7] :

• in infancy - imitation of movements and sounds is an attempt to establish contact;
• in childhood - penetration into the meaning of human activity through modeling in the game;
• in his youth - identification with the idol, belonging to the group ;
• in adulthood - learning in professional activities.

In generalized classifications, there are three sides of communication ^[8] :

• communicative: the exchange of information between communicating individuals ;
• interactive: the organization of interaction between communicating individuals (exchange of actions);
• perceptual ( interpersonal perception ): the process of perception and knowledge of each other partners in communication and the establishment on this basis of mutual understanding.

Close to the first classification highlights such parties:

• information and communication - reception and transmission of information;
• regulatory and communicative - mutual correction of actions in joint activities ;
• affective-communicative - change in emotional state.

Another classification option:

• instrumental function - the main working function, the exchange of information in the process of management and joint labor ;
• syndicative - cohesion of groups ;
• translational function - the transfer of knowledge, assessments;
• self-expression - the search and achievement of mutual understanding.

Functions for communication purposes:

• contact - establishing contact, that is, readiness to receive and transmit information and maintain interconnection;
• informational - reception and transmission of information in response to a request;
• incentive - target stimulation of activity;
• coordination - mutual coordination and coherence in joint activities;
• understanding function - adequate understanding of the meaning, mutual understanding in general;
• emotive - exchange of emotions;
• the function of establishing relations is fixing one's place in society;
• the function of exerting influence is a change in the state, behavior, personality-semantic formations of the partner.

In accordance with the content can distinguish the following types of communication:

• Material communication - the exchange of objects or products of activity.
• Cognitive communication - the exchange of information, knowledge. When we learn from friends about the weather on the street, food prices, the beginning of the concert, ways to solve a mathematical problem, we are dealing with a cognitive type of communication.
• Conditional, or emotional communication - the exchange of emotional states between communicating individuals. Cheer up a sad friend - an example of emotional communication. It is based on the phenomenon of emotional infection.
• Motivational communication - the exchange of desires, motivations, goals, interests or needs. It takes place both in business and in interpersonal communication. Examples include: staff motivation for successful work in an enterprise (business communication), a conversation aimed at persuading a friend to go with you to a concert (interpersonal communication).
• Activity communication is the exchange of skills and abilities, which is carried out as a result of joint activities. Example: learn to embroider a cross in the embroidery circle.

Depending on the communication technology used and its goals, the following types can be distinguished:

• Contact masks - formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the peculiarities of the interlocutor's personality. The usual masks are used (politeness, courtesy, indifference, modesty, compassion, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow to hide the true emotions, attitude to the interlocutor.
• Secular communication is its essence in non-objectivity, that is, people say not what they think, but what they say in such cases; this communication is closed, because the views of people on a particular issue have no meaning and do not determine the nature of communication. For example: formal politeness, ritual communication.
• Formal role-playing communication - when both the content and the means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the person of the interlocutor, they manage with the knowledge of his social role.
• Business communication is communication in which information is exchanged for commercial gain. It arises on the basis of and about a certain type of activity. When business communication does not take into account the peculiarities of the personality, character, mood of the interlocutor, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.
• Interpersonal communication (intimate-personal) - reveals the deep structures of personality.
• Manipulative communication - is aimed at obtaining benefits from the interlocutor.
• Object communication is communication with objects, endowing these objects with an emotional background, such as children's toys, or robots, “smart” products, information carriers with emotional content or manifestations.

• Verbal (voice)
• Paraverbal . Paralingistics ( Greek pará - “about”) is a section of linguistics that studies non-verbal (non-linguistic) means, transmitting together with verbal semantic information as part of a speech message, as well as an aggregate of such means ^[9] . Paralinguistic means are not part of the language system and are not speech units ^[9] , but to a varying degree are represented in each speech unit , accompanying speech ^[10] . There are three types of paralinguistic means ^[9] :
  • fononation - tempo , timbre, loudness of speech, placeholders for pauses (for example, uh , um ), melody of speech , dialect , social or idiolectic features of sound articulation ;
  • kinetic - gestures , posture, facial expressions of the speaker;
  • graphic - features of handwriting , graphic additions to letters, letter substitutes ( & , §, and others).
• Nonverbal

Speech

Speech is the most important form of communication between people through language constructs, created on the basis of certain rules. The language is a sign-symbolic system that correlates conceptual content and typical sound (writing). The process of speech involves, on the one hand, the formation and formulation of thoughts by linguistic (speech) means, and on the other hand - the perception of language constructs and their understanding . Speech is a sign system that includes:

1. words with their meanings
2. syntax - a set of rules by which sentences are built.

The word is a type of sign. The objective property of a verbal sign that determines theoretical activity is the meaning of a word, which is the relationship of a sign (a word in this case) to an object denoted in real life independently ( abstractly ) of how it is represented in the individual consciousness.

Speech originated in human society to coordinate joint work and was one of the manifestations of the emerging consciousness . At the same time, the speech means lost their “naturalness” over time and turned into a system of artificial signals . The physiological basis of speech is a complex, polynomial and multi-level organization of various functional systems, partially specialized, partially serving, and other activities. Since speech is used not only for communication, but also in other activities, it is possible to distinguish the actual “external” speech, which is oriented towards understanding by other people in order to influence their consciousness, activity on social interaction, and internal speech - communication between a person and himself. themselves to put and solve life problems.

There are conflicting views on the nature and function of speech: ^[11]

• B. Croce - a means of emotional expression;
• O. Dietrich , K. Jaberg , K. Vossler - a means of expression and communication.
• A. Marty , P. Wegener - only a means of exposure.
• K. Bühler - functions of expression, appeal and message.

As a result, now we can distinguish the following main functions of speech:

• means of existence, transmission and assimilation of social and historical experience
• means of communication (communication), including the functions of expression, impact, indicative
• tool of intellectual activity (perception, memory, thinking, imagination)

Speech properties:

1. The meaningfulness of speech is the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and relevance to reality;
2. Speech clarity is a syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses or word extraction in appropriate places using logical stress;
3. The expressiveness of speech is its emotional richness, the richness of language means, their diversity. By its expressiveness, it can be bright, energetic and, conversely, lethargic, poor;
4. The effectiveness of speech is a property of speech, which consists in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.

Depending on the form of communication, speech activity is divided into verbal (implying speaking and listening) and writing (writing and reading).

A speech act is a separate act of speech, in normal cases it is a two-sided process of generating a text, encompassing speaking and proceeding in parallel and at the same time auditory perception and understanding of what was heard. In written communication, the speech act covers, respectively, the writing and reading (visual perception and understanding) of the written, and the participants of communication can be distant from each other in time and space. Speech act is a manifestation of speech activity. A statement is a speech work created during a specific speech act, a unit of communication between two people using speech. Considered in the context of this speech act as part of the discourse ( text ).

Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication is a side of communication, consisting in the exchange of information between individuals without the help of speech and language means, presented in any sign form. Such means of non-verbal communication as: mimicry, gestures, posture, intonation, etc., perform the functions of supplementing and replacing speech, transmit the emotional states of the communication partners. The tool of such a “communication” is the human body , which has a wide range of means and methods for transmitting information or exchanging information, which includes all forms of human expression . The common working title that is used among people is nonverbalic or “ body language ”. Psychologists believe that the correct interpretation of non-verbal signals is the most important condition for effective communication.

Knowledge of body language and gestures allows not only to better understand the interlocutor, but also (more importantly) to foresee what impression will be made on him even before he expresses himself on this matter. In other words, such a wordless language can warn you about whether to change your behavior or do something else to achieve the desired result ^[12] .

Non-verbal communication :

• Facial expressions - “expressive movements of the facial muscles, which are one of the forms of manifestation of certain human feelings” ^[13]
• Gesture (from the Latin. Gestus - the movement of the body) - some action or movement of the human body or its part, which has a certain meaning or meaning, that is, is a sign or symbol.
  • Body language is the symbolic elements of the poses and movements of various parts of the body, through which, like with the help of words, thoughts and feelings are structured and encoded, ideas and emotions are transmitted. Body techniques, which include such non-sign movements as mimic gestures, head and foot gestures, gait, and various postures, are also related to body language. The science of body language and its parts is kinesic .
• Eye contact
• Proxemics is a field of social psychology and semiotics , which studies the spatial and temporal sign system of communication. Speaking as a special sign system, the space and time of the organization of the process of communication carry a meaningful load, being components of the communicative situation.

• Message
• Conversation
• Rapport
• Point of view
• Compliments
• Interests
• Linguistic identity

In the communication procedure, the following steps are distinguished.

1. The need for communication (it is necessary to communicate or find out information, to influence the interlocutor, etc.) - encourages a person to come into contact with other people.
2. Orientation for communication purposes, in a communication situation.
3. Orientation in the person of the interlocutor.
4. Planning the content of your communication - a person imagines (usually unconsciously) what he will say.
5. Unconsciously (sometimes consciously), a person chooses specific means, phrases that he will use, decides how to speak, how to behave.
6. Making contact
7. Exchange of opinions, ideas, facts
8. Perception and evaluation of the response of the interlocutor, monitoring the effectiveness of communication based on the establishment of feedback.
9. Adjusting the direction, style, methods of communication and ways of their interaction.

Biocommunication (gr. Bios life and lat. Communico - I connect, I communicate) - communication, communication between individuals of animals of the same or different species by transmitting information using different signals.

The transfer of information (generation) is carried out by special organs (vocal apparatus, odorous glands, body shape, posture, coloring, animal behavior, etc.). Reception of information (reception), carried out at the sensory level, organs of smell, taste, vision, hearing, electro-, thermo, mechanical and other special receptors. The transmitted signals are processed in different parts of the nervous system, compared (integrated) in its higher divisions, where the response of the body is formed.

Signals by animals are given in different contexts, which respectively affect their value, for example, they provide protection from enemies and unfavorable environmental factors, the search for food of the opposite sex is facilitated, parents and offspring communicate, and intraspecific interactions are regulated others

The study of the behavior of organisms, their signaling, communication, and relationships allows a deeper understanding of the mechanism of structuring a specific population and outline ways and means of controlling its dynamics. For many animal species, ethologists , zoopsychologists, and other specialists have compiled catalogs describing the language of postures , facial expressions , and gestures .

Zoosemiotics is a scientific discipline that describes the biocommunication of animals (the transfer of information from one individual to another) from the standpoint of the content of their communicative actions (see also Semiotics ).

The informative content of communicative actions may include:

• to the spheres of identification - identification of the individual's belonging to a certain species, community, sex, identification of an individual among relatives, etc .;
• to the motivation of behavior - information about the physiological state of the animal, for example, about the state of hunger, sexual arousal, emotional state, etc .;
• to relations with the environment - warning of the danger, finding food, a place to rest, etc.

According to the origin and mechanism of action, the forms of communication differ in the channels of information transfer (optical, acoustic, chemical, tactile, etc.)

Social animals (dolphins, primates, dogs, bees, ants) have particularly complex forms of communication, which is expressed in concerted joint actions for the effective functioning of their community as a whole ^[14] .

In all models describing the process of communication, the term “noise” is used to describe the noise in the decoding of the message sent via the communication channel. There are different types of noise ^[15] :

Environmental noise

Noise in the traditional sense of the word, that is, an outside sound that interferes with receiving a message. Examples include the difficulty of communicating in a disco, standing under loudspeakers, or the difficulty of a lecturer, who is being built next to the audience.

Physiological noise

We are talking about a situation where the recipient has a certain physiological state that makes it difficult for him to receive this message (for example, deafness or blindness ).

Semantic Noise (Semantic Barrier)

The noise emanating from a different understanding of the meaning of words sending and receiving a message. For example, the word "grass" can mean a certain form of plants, and can have a slang meaning - marijuana .

Syntactic noise

Errors in grammar or syntax can make communication more difficult. As a rule, people who transmit a message in a non-native language suffer from this type of noise.

Cultural noise (social and cultural barrier)

It is caused by social, political, religious, and professional differences in attitudes, habits, and traditions, leading to different explanations and perceptions of certain concepts and phenomena ^[16] . Общение между представителями разных культур может быть затрудненно взаимонепониманием связанным с использованием кодов, подходящих лишь к конкретной культуре. В качестве примеров можно привести пожелание «счастливого рождества» обращённое к человеку, не являющемуся христианином .

Психологический шум

Настроение принимающего сообщение может способствовать эффективному общению или, наоборот, затруднять его. Сильный гнев или печаль мешают сфокусироваться на приёме сообщения ^[15] . Между «донором» и «реципиентом» информации могут возникать коммуникативные барьеры — психологические преграды, которые человек устанавливает, чтобы защититься от нежелательной, утомительной или опасной информации. Выделяются следующие типы барьеров, в зависимости от причин их возникновения ^[16] :

• Барьер взаимопонимания . Может возникать из-за огрехов в процессе передачи информации. Например, когда коммуникатор говорит невнятно, слишком быстро, нечётко или употребляет большое количество звуков-паразитов.
• Стилистический барьер возникает при несоответствии стиля речи говорящего и ситуации общения или стиля речи, состояния того, кто в это время слушает.
• Логический барьер появляется, когда логика рассуждения говорящего или слишком сложна для понимания слушающего, или кажется ему неправильной, противоречит присущей ему манере доказательств.
• Барьер авторитета . Иногда препятствием может стать либо неприятие говорящего из-за его неавторитетности в глазах слушателя, либо наоборот, во время общения с человеком, который является для собеседника очень авторитетным, участник общения может теряться, быть невнимательным, не знать, что ответить.
• Барьер отношений . При возникновении у слушателя чувства неприязни, недоверия к говорящему это чувство может неосознанно переноситься и на информацию, которую тот передаёт.

Психологические расстройства, как, например, аутизм , могут затруднять общение до уровня, когда оно перестаёт быть возможным ^[15] .

В разработку проблем межличностного общения внесли вклад такие теоретические направления как:

• бихевиоризм ;
• когнитивизм ;
• психоанализ ;
• ролевая теория ;
• гуманистическая психология ^[17] .

Для бихевиоризма ключевым фактором, определяющим социальное поведение, являются внешние стимулы; для когнитивных теорий — внутренние мотивации; для психоанализа — неосознаваемые влечения; для ролевой теории — ролевые предписания; основная идея гуманистической психологии — способность человека к самосовершенствованию ^[17] .

Мотивы общения

Мотивы, побуждающие к общению, могут быть различными, от эгоистически - манипулятивных до альтруистически -бескорыстных. Устанавливая отношения с другими людьми, человек может стремиться к тому, чтобы властвовать, производить впечатление, поддерживать имидж дружелюбного и доброжелательного человека и т. д. Однако наиболее важными человеческими потребностями, реализуемыми в общении, считаются потребность в аффилиации (доверительном общении) и потребность в альтруизме (потребность заботиться о других) ^[18] .

• Виды коммуникации
• Письмо (письменность)
• Переговоры
• Телефонный разговор
• Язык тела
• Язык жестов
• Виртуальное общение
• Языковая личность

• Выготский Л. С. Мышление и речь.
• Жинкин Н. И. Речь как проводник информации.
• Куницына В. Н., Казаринова Н. В., Погольша В. М. Межличностное общение. Textbook for universities. - SPb. : Питер , 2001. — 544 с. — (Учебник нового века). - 7000 copies — ISBN 5-8046-0173-3 .
• Леви В. Л. Искусство быть другим — СПб. : Питер , 1993. — 191 с. : il. — (Искусство быть; кн. 1). — ISBN 5-7190-0006-2 .
• Лунева О. В. Общение // Знание. Понимание. Умение . — 2005. — № 4 . — С. 157-159 .
• Смирнов И. Motherfucker, или об экстремальных техниках сближения/дистанцирования в коммуникативном акте // Смирнов И. П. Генезис. Философские очерки по социокультурной начинательности. СПб., 2006. С. 87-108.