Situational Theory of Problem Solving

The situational theory of society was formed by J. E. Grunig in 1968 in the book “Managing public relations”. ^[2] (Eng.) He suggested that there are certain independent variables that determine the inclusion of a person in one of the four groups of society - active (Eng. Active), informed (Eng. Aware ), latent (Eng. Latent ) and non-public ( English non-public ). Moreover, each group has a special type of behavior that should be taken into account by public relations specialists. Independent variables are " problem recognition " (English problem recognition ), "constraint recognition" (English constraint recognition ) and "level of participation". These three independent variables define dependent variables - types of behavior, on the basis of which there is a segmentation of the public into these groups.

Dependent Variables

There are two dependent variables in this theory that are responsible for the active and passive behavior of the public. These variables are “ information seeking ” (English information seeking ) and “processing of the information provided” (English information processing ). ^[3] . (eng.)

• "Information Search" is

purposeful planned action to collect information on the topic.

Original text

the planned scanning of the environment for messages about a specific topic.

^[3]

• “Processing the information provided” is the work with information that was unplanned received.

The "informed" and "active" part of the public will try to find information and deal with it itself. The “non-public” and “latent” parts, in turn, will pay attention to a problem or situation only if it is demonstrated to them. Moreover, in the future they most likely will not pass it on to anyone.

• “Problem Awareness” occurs when

people find that the situation in which they find themselves needs to be changed and begin to think how to do it.

Original text

people detect that something should be done about a situation and stop to think about what to do

- ^[3]

Those who do not see the problem or are outside the given situation cannot be assigned to the group of the active public (they are not “active” or “knowledgeable”). Their behavior is passive (“latent” or “non-public” groups). This independent variable answers the question: “Do I need to inform the public about the existence of a situation or problem? Or is she already looking for information on this topic? ”

• "Recognition of limitations." The public recognizes the existence of restrictions when they believe that there is any obstacle standing in the way of a change in a given situation. Such recognition of restrictions can have a big impact on the behavior of people, their further actions. If people think that there is an obstacle in their way, they will be less likely to report a problem. A high level of recognition of limitations will lead to people being more passive in their behavior towards the problem.

• “Level of participation” is a measure of how emotionally relevant a problem is for an individual. A higher level of participation means a more active position. For example, if two people have the same level of problem detection and recognition of limitations, an individual with a higher level of participation will be more active.

In his 2011 article “Public segmentation using situational theory of problem solving” of 2011, Chong-Nam Kim describes in detail the assessment system used for STP and STOPS theories. ^[4] (English) The summation method uses the average value of indicators obtained during the survey as a cut-off point. When public relations specialists have identified the problem and its perception by the public, they can take the middle point of the research scale (for example, 3 on a 5-point scale) as a cut-off point and transcode the data into two indicators; high (= 1) and low (= 0). For example, a participant who answers with a rating of 4 for “awareness of the problem”, 3 for “level of participation” and 2 for “recognition of limitations” on a 5-point scale, the answers will be converted to a high (more than 3) “awareness of the problem” (= 1) , high (more than 3) “level of participation” (= 1) and low (less than 3) “recognition of limitations” (= 1) using middle 3 as a cut-off point. It is important to note that the indicator “recognition of restrictions” is the opposite, that is, high detection of restrictions (= 0) and low restriction recognition (= 1). This happens because a high level of this indicator, on the contrary, reduces the activity of the group. The final total score may consistently indicate the level of situational motivation of the group. The higher the score, the more active the group. Public relations specialists can simply summarize all three transcoded values. This will lead to four possible values: 0 = “non-public” group, 1 = “latent” group, 2 = “knowledgeable” group, 3 = “active” group.

The situational theory of problem solving begins with the assumption that human behavior is motivated by problem solving. Theory defines the problem as

the perceived mismatch between the expected and real state of mind in a given situation, which causes a feeling of mismatch. The solution to the problem, in turn, is defined as an attempt to reduce this perceived mismatch.

Original text

We define a problem as a perceptual discrepancy between expected and experienced states in a given situation that produces an uncomfortable feeling of badness-of-fit. We define problem solving as one's effort to decrease this perceived discrepancy.

^[5]

For a clearer explanation of communicative actions, changes were made to the main variables of STP theory. A new dependent variable was also added - communicant activeness in problem solving (CAPS ), to relate the indicators of communicative behavior variables. Problem Solving Communicator Activity (CAPS) is a new concept that describes the communicative activity of the person solving the problem in collecting (English information acquisition ), selecting (English information selection ), and exchanging information (English information transmission ) when it is about solving problems. The collection of information, its selection and its transmission, in turn, can be divided into active and passive components - in total, 6 dependent variables that determine human behavior can now be derived. Thus, CAPS multiplies the number of dependent variables considered in STP theory. The STOPS theory also introduces a new independent variable, the referent criterion .

Prerequisites for Solving the Problem - Independent Variables

• "Awareness of the problem"
• “Recognition of limitations”
• "Level of participation"
• "Comparison Criterion" -

any knowledge or subjective judgment system that affects the choice of ways to solve a problem. "

Original text

any knowledge or subjective judgmental system that influences the way in which one approaches problem solving

- ^[5]

(eng.)

Situational motivation in solving problems

Motivation is how much a person wants to know about a problem. This concept links the indicators of “awareness of the problem”, “recognition of constraints” and “level of participation”. The “comparison criterion" does not depend on this variable, because it is more cognitive than perceptual. ^[5]

Communicative Problem Solving - Dependent Variables

According to the theory, when a person tries to solve a problem, his communicative activity increases in three areas: “collecting information”, “choosing information” and transmitting it. Each of these communication dependent variables consists of active (English active ) or proactive (English proactive ) types of behavior - “information retrieval”, “information transfer”, “rejection of unnecessary information” and passive (English passive ) - “information processing "," Exchange of information "," approval of information. " As a person becomes more active in solving the problem, his methods of collecting information are systematized, become more relevant and specific.

"Information collection" (how a person receives information) is divided into:

• “Information Search” (active group): this is a deliberate planned action to collect information on a topic, a problem / situation. ^[5]
• “Information Processing” (passive group): unplanned familiarization with messages on a specific topic. ^[5]

“Information selection” (the variable refers to the desire to select and exchange information) is divided into:

• “Rejection of unnecessary information” (active group): a situation where a person rejects certain information in advance, evaluating its value and relevance for a given problem-solving task. ^[5] (Eng.) Persons with a higher degree of involvement are looking for more specific, systematic and accurate information.
• “Information Approval” (passive group): a situation where a person accepts any information related to the task of solving a problem. ^[5]

"Information transfer" (the way people exchange the data they possess, when solving problems collectively) is divided into:

• “Information forwarding ” (active group): transmitting information, even if no one asks for someone else’s opinion, ideas or analysis of the problem. ^[5]

• “Information sharing” (passive group): sharing information only when another person asks for someone else’s opinion, idea or analysis of the problem. ^[5]

STOPS has been reviewed and tested in many academic research papers by foreign authors. Among them are research in the field of healthcare ^[6] (English) , crisis communications ^[7] (English) , research in the field of HR ^[8] (English) and even communications in the field of climate change ^[9] (English) . They use methods of segmenting the public according to the STP and STOPS theories on specific cases and find out the dependence of constant criteria on variables in a particular study area. The authors of the works note the obvious practical potential of the theory.

For example, one of the latest studies ^[10] (English) , devoted to the study of public reaction to widely circulated "hot" news, uses the STOPS theory to conveniently segment respondents and analyze their types of behavior. The authors interviewed 748 people in Taiwan to find out the motivational basis for their actions or inaction regarding the acute problem of importing American beef. According to the results of the study, the relationship between the independent variable “problem awareness” and situational motivation was not confirmed. Moreover, the insufficiency of the proposed system of public segmentation was revealed, since the same type of behavior (group) may have different situational motivation, which means that with the same behavior, each group requires a different kind of message to prevent a crisis situation. According to the study, the active part of the population, which was simply concerned about the quality of beef, was aware of the problem, but attributed it to the field of health, and not economics or politics. For them, the most reassuring statements were the safety of eating this product, the non-fatality of possible food poisoning and the inability to be infected with mad cow disease. Other active groups were also aware of the problem and shared it, but their opinion was formed by the opposition party with low confidence in the Taiwan government, which means that the problem belonged to the political sphere. For this type, the most effective comments were on the economic benefits of importing American beef and on serious work at the state level over product quality control.

Gruning himself and a number of other specialists are considering the reaction to widely circulated "hot" news in the already mentioned study of crisis communications ^[7] . Among the basic findings, the following should be noted:

1. "Hot problems" can instantly affect non-public and latent groups and transform them into an extremely active "hot" group (from the English. Hot-issue publics ), whose opinion is formed by the media. At the same time, their activity will be short-lived and will again greatly decrease when the news ceases to be “hot”. Nevertheless, it is this “hot” group that becomes the main CA of organizations during crises, since it makes up the bulk.
2. Broad coverage of the problem in the media increases the rate of “awareness of the problem” among latent and non-public groups (active and knowledgeable groups initially have a high rate of this variable). At the same time, an increase in the indicator automatically turns passive groups into active ones.
3. Media coverage of the problem does not significantly affect the “level of participation”.
4. The variable “recognition of restrictions” depends on the content of messages that are broadcast through the media. Her indicator decreases when the message contains a call to action and actively communicates with the recipient.
5. Not only the media, but also interpersonal relationships can become a source of distribution of "hot" messages.

Another study that examined students ’intentions to participate in extracurricular activities ^[11] suggests that STOPS variables are most effective when combined with indicators considered in Isaac Aizen’s Theory of Planned Behavior . The author of the work is convinced that only such a merger of approaches in segmenting the public will be beneficial.

The work devoted to the study of human actions in the treatment of chronic diseases ^[12] examined the existing correlation between two dependent variables-indicators of active behavior (“information search” and “rejection of unnecessary information”) and the emotional and physical outcome of treatment, as well as concentration on emotions or solving a major health problem. According to the results, it turned out that these two types of communicative actions contribute to a positive outcome of treatment. Moreover, if a person concentrated on the emotional side of the problem, then his treatment successfully proceeded both emotionally and physically. If the main motivation was to solve the main health problem, then the physical part of the treatment progressed much more than in the first case, but the emotional did not. As it turned out, the “information search” is responsible for solving the underlying health problem, and the “rejection of unnecessary information” is for the emotional component of the treatment. A comparative analysis showed that patients with chronic diseases can achieve greater success in the treatment process, if they are most active in the "search for information."

The above-mentioned study in the field of health ^[6] supplements the theories of STOPS and STP. The authors examined the behavior of cancer patients and those suffering from chronic diseases, especially in the field of "information search". In addition to the conclusion that those who do not seek information on their own more trust doctors and prescribed treatment, the study provides a possible connection between the dependent active variable “information search” and certain social indicators. According to the authors of the work, this variable depends on the age and socio-economic status of the person. People with better education and higher earnings are more likely to seek information about their illness. Young people are also actively seeking symptom information. А пожилые люди больше доверяют врачам и редко самостоятельно интересуются другими методами лечения. Другим выводом является тот факт, что люди с высоким показателем «поиска информации» более открыты ко всем источникам информации, включая докторов, и полны энтузиазма, в то время как не занимающиеся поиском люди крайне консервативны и замкнуты. Было выведено заключение, что люди, постоянно ищущие информацию, принимают решения, подкрепленные основательной информационной базой, более уверены в своем лечении, позитивно смотрят на процесс и страдают от меньшего количества побочных эффектов. Из вывода следует, что консервативных людей, не занимающихся активным поиском информации, стоит насыщать фактами из разных источников.

Из-за сравнительной новизны теория применяется недостаточно широко, в то время как сами авторы видят большое количество возможностей для практического её использования. Чонг-Нам Ким в книге «Public Relations and Communication Management: current trends and emerging topics» ^[13] (англ.) приводит ряд областей для потенциального применения теории. Среди них исследование общественного поведения в вопросах защиты окружающей среды, изучение коммуникационных рисков при решении вопросов здоровья, поведения общественности при создании репутации, бренда и построении идентичности и другие.

1. Kim, Jeong-Nam; Grunig, James E. . Problem Solving and Communicative Action: A Situational Theory of Problem Solving//. Journal of Communication. −2011 — 61 (1) [1]
2. Grunig, JE/ profile on researchgate.net — Situational Theory of publics [2]
3. Kim, J.-N. Public segmentation using situational theory of problem solving: Illustrating summation method and testing segmented public profiles [3]
4. Kim, Jeong-Nam; Grunig. Problem Solving and Communication Activeness: A Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS) [APA 5th Edition]Working Paper [4]
5. Ramanadhan, Shoba; Viswanath, K. «Health and the Information Nonseeker: A Profile». Health Communication — 2016 [5]
6. Aldoory, Linda; Grunig, James E. «The Rise and Fall of Hot-Issue Publics: Relationships that Develop From Media Coverage of Events and Crises». International Journal of Strategic Communication. 6 (1)- 2012 [6]
7. Norliana Hashim, Chang Peng Kee, Mat Pauzi Abd Rahman «Attempt to Solving Situational Problem of Alumni Employability» [7]
8. Michael Eddie Burch,Climate Change, Situational Theory of Problem Solving, and Issue Framing Effects, 2013 [8]
9. Krishnamurthy Sriramesh,Ansgar Zerfass, Kim J.-N. Public Relations and Communication Management: current trends and emerging topics, 2013 [9]
10. Chen, Yi-Ru Regina; Hung-Baesecke, Chun-Ju Flora; Kim, Jeong-Nam (2017). «Identifying Active Hot-Issue Communicators and Subgroup Identifiers». Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 94 (1)doi:10.1177/1077699016629371
11. McKeever, Brooke Weberling; Pressgrove, Geah; McKeever, Robert; Zheng, Yue. «Toward a theory of situational support: A model for exploring fundraising, advocacy and organizational support». Public Relations Review. 42 (1)-2016 doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.09.009
12. Jeong-Nam Kim, Seungyoon Lee. Communication and Cybercoping: Coping With Chronic Illness Through Communicative Action in Online Support Networks//Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives −21 Feb 2014 DOI: 10.1080/10810730.2013.864724

1. Grunig, JE Information, entrepreneurship, and economic development: A study of the decision-making process of Colombian Latifundistas. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.1968 [10]
2. Clarke, Peter; Kline, F. Gerald. «Media Effects Reconsidered» — 2016 [11]
3. Kim, J.-N., Grunig, JE, & Ni, L. Reconceptualizing the communicative action of publics: Acquisition, selection, and transmission of information in problematic situations. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 4:2,2010 [12]