Ancient Egyptian Army

The period of the Old Kingdom was a time of unprecedented wealth and prosperity in Egyptian history. It was it that allowed the government to organize a stable and efficient army. For a fairly long time - until the very beginning of the New Kingdom period - Egypt had four main reasons for participating in armed conflicts:

1. the attacks of the ancient Libyans who inhabited the gradually drying up Sahara west of Egypt;
2. Nubian attacks from the south;
3. Semitic attacks from the Sinai Peninsula and from the future Palestine - from the north;
4. domestic conflicts between individual nomes - separatism.

All peoples living outside Egypt were seen as a likely adversary - both because many barbarian tribes at that time raided rich Egypt, and because the Egyptian ruling circles themselves considered these lands around only as military booty, spending there with the success of their conquests, imperialist politics , which included the genocide of the indigenous population. One of the main signs of military affairs during the period of the Old Kingdom is the construction of fortresses in the Nile Valley. During this period, the main conflict in Egypt was with Nubia, located south of the country, in the territory of present Sudan, and Egypt - according to sources, only for self-defense purposes - built fortresses far in the south, in the depths of then still barbaric Nubia. Nobody attacked these fortresses, but the very fact of their existence frightened barbarians from the borders of Egypt. Many of these fortresses are now flooded by the Nasser reservoir , but at one time they were symbols of Egyptian power in the region. In the period of the Ancient Kingdom, Egypt did not have a professional army: the ruler of each nome gathered his own militia ^[2] and led him to the pharaoh, who eventually commanded the combined army assembled from such militias. Service in the army was not associated with special prestige, therefore the poor were mainly recruited there, who for some reason could not engage in other professions ^[3] .

During the period of the Ancient Kingdom, the Egyptians already used various models of weapons and armor: shields, spears, batons , buzdygans , daggers, bows and arrows. Archers made up the majority in the army. In the army of the Old Kingdom, simple wooden bows were common, and more powerful and long-range composite bows appeared only in the reign of the Hyksos - and then they spread widely among Egyptian soldiers.

In the period of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, the theory of economic imperialism began to develop ^[4] . Egypt's control over the territories surrounding it at this time became a matter of the use of military force. Egypt had several reasons for military control over its borders. Firstly, the country protected its territories, population and resources from neighbors, and secondly, the pharaohs sought to maintain control over trade routes and gain wealth through intermediary trade. In addition, during the period of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt somewhat expanded its borders.

After the pharaoh Merneferra-ey (c. 1704-1690 BC) escaped from his palace, leaving the country to the mercy of fate, the West Semitic Hyksos tribe destroyed the Egyptian capital Memphis and declared himself masters of Upper and Lower Egypt. After the Hyksos took control of the country, many Egyptians fled to Thebes , where they created a hotbed of resistance to the invaders ^[5] .

The Hyksos themselves were Semites who came to Egypt from the northeast; their capital was the fortified city of Avaris in the eastern corner of the Nile Delta. The Egyptians at that time were in a state of political crisis, their government could not do anything, and the country was between two fires: from the north - the Hyksos, and from the south - the Nubians. During this period, the military affairs of the Egyptians changed significantly. It was from the Hyksos who came from the north that the Egyptians borrowed such inventions as a war chariot and a composite bow , which was distinguished by a greater range. The advent of these inventions allowed the Egyptians to greatly improve their military affairs. Chariots are widely used in Egypt starting from the Hyksos period, however, the stele dating to the end of the XIII dynasty is known, which depicts war chariots ^[6] . More clear evidence that the Egyptians already used horses in war at the beginning of the Second Transition can be seen in the city of El Tel el Kebir , where archaeologists have found a complete skeleton of a horse dating back to the time of the XIII dynasty. Also openly related to the XII dynasty is the burial in El Rahahn, in which an object with a horse's head engraved on it was discovered. The war chariot itself was not the invention of the Hyksos - this people, in turn, borrowed it from the Hurrians living further north ^[3] . Composite bow - in comparison with the simple one preceding it - provided the best range and accuracy. As a result of the fact that the Egyptians were now holding these new types of weapons, the Egyptian resistance to the Hyksos was successful - the Hyksos were driven out of the country from the time Taa II Sechenenra came to power in Thebes around 1569 BC. e. and began the fight against the invaders. After him, Camos became the pharaoh, who continued the displacement of the Hyksos, which was finally completed by his brother Yahmos I ^[5] . From this moment begins the period of the New Kingdom.

During the New Kingdom , Egypt faced new threats. Innovations in military affairs, borrowed from the Hyksos, allowed the Egyptian army to successfully resist the invasion attempts undertaken at that time. The Hittites were the main threat in the northeast, and clashes have occurred before. The Hittites tried to conquer Egypt, but - stumbled upon desperate resistance, were forced to sign a peace treaty. In addition, at the same time the warlike peoples of the sea surged into the Middle East, which brought Egypt many problems, but the country was still quite militarily strong - and not a single invasion of the barbarians at that time led to the collapse of the Egyptian state. In wars with the peoples of the sea, the Egyptians relied mainly on their infantry - unlike the Hittites, who were heavily dependent on their war chariots, as well as on their own ancestors of the times of the Ancient and Middle Kingdom ^[7] .

Before the period of the New Kingdom, the Egyptian army was forcibly recruited from peasants and artisans, uniting into a large army under the banner of the Pharaoh ^[2] . During the period of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, the Egyptian army was still very poorly equipped. The armament was simple: spears with copper tips and wooden shields sheathed in leather. Maces with stone tips were also used in the archaic period, later they were used only for ceremonial purposes, and bronze battle axes took their place on the battlefield. The infantry consisting of spearmen were supported by archers armed with simple (non-composite) bows, arrowheads made of flint or copper. In the third and beginning of the second millennium BC. e. the Egyptians have not used any armor yet. The Nubians ( Mejai ) were recruited as mercenaries and were the best archers.

Starting from about 1600 BC. e. - with the displacement of the Hyksos from Lower Egypt - the Egyptian army took a significant step forward ^[2] . It was during this period - namely, at the beginning of the reign of the 18th dynasty - that the Egyptians began to use horses and war chariots in war ^[2] , and they improved the design of the chariots, making them easier and faster - including in comparison with models used in others the great powers of the Middle East of that time. The Egyptian war chariot was served by a charioteer who controlled the horse with reins and lashes, as well as a warrior, usually armed with a composite bow with arrows and several short spears. Warriors on a chariot were sometimes protected by scaly armor, but many were limited only to leather armor on their chests or generally only a shield that more or less provided protection to the hull, while the legs were hidden and protected by wooden sides of the chariot. Semi-precious stones were encrusted into the scaly armor of the pharaohs - and this provided better protection due to the fact that the stones gave the armor additional hardness, being harder than the metal of the arrowheads.

The Egyptians actively used bows and arrows, this weapon became especially formidable after borrowing a composite bow from the Hyksos. It was these bows, combined with war chariots, that allowed the Egyptian army to attack quickly and from a safe distance for itself.

In addition, it was during this period that the sword- hopesh became a mass weapon, the images in temples are known, where the pharaoh shows how to get the hopesh from the hands of a deity; at the same time, armor also appears, casting of bronze products reaches considerable heights. By the time of the 19th dynasty , ordinary warriors began to wear armor (scaly with a leather or fabric base).

The above changes contributed to the fact that the role of the army in the life of Egyptian society also changed: during the New Kingdom: from a militia gathered during the war, it turned into a strong organization consisting of already professional soldiers ^[2] . The conquest of new lands, such as Nubia, required the maintenance of permanent military garrisons in these conquered territories. Clashes with other developed powers of the Middle East, such as Mitanni , the Hittite Empire , and later Assyria and Babylonia , made Egypt face the need to wage wars outside its own country. In total, 20 foreign campaigns were undertaken, 4,000 foot soldiers were mobilized ^[1] . The Egyptian army also served many representatives of the barbarian tribes: Libyans, Nubians, Semites from the future Palestine, as well as Sherdans - representatives of one of the peoples of the sea, nothing came from the Sherdan language to our time . They are often described as mercenaries, but most likely they were prisoners of war who preferred military service to slavery ^[1] .

The next leap forward refers to the Late period of Egyptian history (712-332 BC), it was at this time that the Egyptians began to use iron weapons. After the conquest by Alexander the Great, Egypt was heavily Hellenized, at that time the phalanx borrowed from the Greeks became the main infantry unit. In fact, little is known of Egyptian inventions in military affairs, but the Egyptians successfully borrowed weapons, tactics and strategies from their neighbors, the Semites and Greeks.

Already during the period of the Old Kingdom (about 2686–2160 BC), various units existed in the Egyptian army; to the period of the Middle Kingdom (about 2055-1650 BC) a clear hierarchy is already observed in the Egyptian army. During the period of the New Kingdom (about 1550-1069 BC), the Egyptian army is divided into three main types of troops: infantry , chariot troops and the navy ^[8] .

Egyptian soldiers

During the Egyptian conquests and campaigns abroad, the pharaohs decided to divide the entire army into two parts - the North and the South. Subsequently, each of these parts was divided into 4 parts, bearing the names of the Egyptian gods: Ra , Amon , Ptah, and Seth (and the pharaoh was considered the governor of Amon). Pharaoh gained the highest command - usually these were princes from among his closest relatives; they, in turn, recruited lower-ranking officers. The "captains" in the army were usually princes of lower ranks, often they sought their posts with the help of bribes. Another important factor in recruiting officers was the level of education, since combat commanders often had to carry out diplomatic functions. Also, mercenaries served in the army - they were trained by Egyptian officers, but the line between mercenaries and ethnic Egyptians in the army always existed.

Each regiment was determined by the weapons it used: archers, horse and foot lancers, and so on. Spearmen were armed not only with spears, but also with daggers and short crooked swords. In Egyptian art, images of troops are known in which every fifth soldier carries a semblance of a reed or rod in his hands. Perhaps the bearer of such a sign commanded the whole five.

Military banners

The military banner allows soldiers and commanders to distinguish their own from strangers. The need for a banner arises only in large enough armies, divided into separate units. And we see these separate military units in the Egyptian army starting from the Zero Dynasty . The most common type of ancient Egyptian banner is a semicircular panel on a high pole, such banners were used, in particular, in the navy. They were also widespread later, for example, during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut . However, in addition to these, there were also banners with rectangular panels, also fixed on long poles; they could carry ostrich feathers and other similar ornaments ^[9] .

Infantry

Some of the soldiers in the infantry were called from the subjects of the pharaoh - that is, these people were obliged to serve the homeland; however, another part of the infantry was formed from people who had voluntarily joined the army ^[8] . Egyptian soldiers - both drafted from the locals and mercenaries - received salaries for their service ^[10] . Mercenaries were recruited from different tribes: Nubians (starting from the late Ancient Kingdom), Semites from the future Palestine (Middle and New Kingdom), Sherdans , Libyans , and also the Naarn people from Asia Minor ^[11] the period of the Ramessids ^[10] , (New Kingdom, XIX and XX dynasties, circa 1292-1075 BC ^[12] ); also in the Late period, Phoenicians , Carians and Greeks were involved in the army as mercenaries ^[13] .

Chariot troops

Chariots of war were borrowed by the ancient Egyptians from their neighbors - the Semitic peoples of the future Palestine - at the end of the Second Transitional Period (about 1650-1550 BC) or at the beginning of the New Kingdom period (about 1550-1069 BC. ) and quickly became the basis of the Egyptian armed forces ^[10] . Chariots were recruited from representatives of the Egyptian noble estate. Chariots were usually used as a means of transportation on the battlefield and a mobile platform with which you can shoot and throw spears at the enemy; two horses harnessed into the chariot ^[10] , there were also two soldiers on it: the charioteer, who controlled the horses and defended himself and his comrade with a shield, as well as the arrow with a bow and throwing spears. The chariot troops operated with the support of the infantry ^[8] . By the time of the Battle of Kadesh, the armament of the Egyptian chariots was at the peak of its development. Chariots by this time had become fast and maneuverable, which was ensured by the ease of their design. In an equestrian attack, the ability of the war chariots to quickly turn, turn around and repeat the attack was useful, thus breaking through the enemy’s system and turning into a mobile fast-moving platform, from which arrows and throwing spears rained down on the enemy. The chariot troops operated with the support of the infantry. At the Battle of Kadesh, there were 25 chariots per infantry regiment. Light chariots were usually not sent into battle - many of them were needed for reconnaissance and transmission of commander messages to soldiers. In battle, the chariots were grouped in 10, 50 and 250, the last unit was controlled by the “Chariot Commander” ^[1] .

The chariots were two-wheeled, so it was impossible to get into them, you had to stand while driving. Chariots were always expensive and demonstrated the status of their owners, including on the battlefield. In Egypt, they appeared in the XVI century BC. e., borrowed from the Hyksos. Subsequently, the chariots were actively used by the Egyptians in many battles: both as a kind of “military taxi” for moving soldiers across the battlefield, and as mobile firing points. The main armament of the warrior moving on a chariot was a composite bow with arrows, spears and swords were also used. An archer stood at the rear of the chariot, where it was almost impossible to hit from the ground. Chariots were used to move archers to good firing positions, where they dismounted and fired from the ground, and in case of danger, they again climbed onto the chariot for a quick retreat. One of the main functions of the chariots was to break through the enemy system, giving the infantry the opportunity to go on the offensive in the gap. Such breakthroughs were dangerous, since the war horses harnessed to the chariot, despite their training before the war, were still afraid of a huge number of armed people around. The horse itself will not voluntarily go into a large crowd of enemy infantry, no matter how they try to force it to do so. An even more hopeless undertaking to attempt to break the enemy’s chariots becomes when the chariots used are light, just characteristic of the time of the late Bronze Age. Moreover, at that time it was repeatedly possible to verify one significant drawback of war chariots: they could be used normally only on a flat plain, any ravine or beam became an insurmountable obstacle. So, in the IX and VIII centuries BC. e. the Egyptians directly faced this problem during military campaigns in the territory of future Palestine and Syria, where the uneven and rugged rocky terrain made the Egyptian war chariots almost useless. Regarding the role of war chariots in the military successes and subsequent defeats of Egypt, there are several theories, the most famous of which belongs to Robert Drews. The researcher claims that it was the use of war chariots that put an end to the late Bronze Age, as mercenaries present at that time in the Egyptian army studied the strengths and weaknesses of this army - to use them later against the Egyptians themselves to raise a rebellion ^[14] .

Navy

From the last centuries of the Old Kingdom to the period of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians actively used ships as a means of transportation for soldiers ^{[10] [8]} . By the beginning of the subsequent transition period, the Egyptian navy was already quite developed, the Egyptians knew how to use complex maneuvers with the participation of the fleet: for example, Pharaoh Kamos effectively used the fleet against the Hyksos during the battle in the harbor of the city of Avaris (approximately 1555-1550 BC. .) ^[8] .

In ancient Egypt, two different types of ships were used: papyrus and wooden. It was large wooden ships that were used for military purposes and provided Egypt with a reputation as a powerful naval power. The design of wooden ships was complex, although, for example, they did not have an internal frame. Ships moved on oars, rowers were slaves - for them on each ship a special compartment was provided, usually under the deck. The steering paddle was a feed oar, which was controlled by one person ^[15] .

The ancient Egyptians used small arms and throwing weapons in order to weaken the enemy without harming themselves and to facilitate the infantry’s work - that is, for a kind of “artillery preparation” before the infantry attack. Slings were used, similar to boomerangs throwing batons, throwing spears and darts, but most of all - composite bows with arrows.

Throwing batons

The boomerang-like batons were used by the Egyptians in the pre-dynastic period, however, the effectiveness of these batons as a combat weapon remained low. However, being simple to manufacture and use, throwing batons remained in service with the Egyptian infantry until the end of the New Kingdom period. Basically, throughout Egyptian history, throwing batons were used for bird hunting, as well as for ceremonial purposes.

Spears

The spear is a universal weapon, it can be successfully used both in close combat and for hitting an enemy at a distance. During the period of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, a typical Egyptian spear was a long wooden pole, to one end of which a pointed copper or flint tip was attached. The standard spear was intended for throwing or for stabbing wounds in close combat, but there were also spears similar to the later halberds, equipped with a chopping blade and designed for chopping blows in hand-to-hand combat.

The Egyptians used spears from ancient times - for hunting large animals, including lions. Subsequently, with the development of bows, a composite bow with arrows replaced a throwing spear as a ranged weapon. Compared to the arrow, the spear - due to its greater mass - possessed better penetrating ability, but in the region where the shield was practically the only means of protecting the warrior, and the armor was practically not used, this advantage of the spear did not play a special role. In addition, arrows were easier to manufacture and could be produced in huge quantities, which can not be said about spears.

The ancient Egyptians did not have analogues of the Greek phalanx, so the significance of copies as a weapon of war was significantly lower. During the period of the New Kingdom, the spear was often used as an auxiliary weapon in chariot troops - so that the crew of the war chariot did not remain unarmed after it shot all the arrows. The spears were also useful in chasing the fleeing enemy soldiers - a blow from the chariot in the back killed the fleeing on the spot. The text from Karnak tells the story of the victory of Amenhotep II (approximately 1428-1397 BC) in Shemesh-Edom ( Canaan ):

“... His Majesty was armed with his weapons and fought like Seth . Enemies fled from the sight of Pharaoh. His Majesty captured all their wealth only with the help of his spear ... "

The spear was valued enough to be in the image of Ramses III : this pharaoh kills his Libyan enemy with a spear that is shown to be short enough (does not exceed the length of human growth) and, possibly, throwing.

Bow and Arrow

Bow and arrow were critical to the ancient Egyptians throughout their history - from the pre-Dynastic period to the appearance of firearms in the late Middle Ages . The first bows were made of two antelope horns, connected by a flexible wooden element.

By the beginning of the Dynastic period, wooden bows appeared - the simplest: a wooden arch (one), the bowstring was made from the tendons of animals or from plant fibers. Immediately before the beginning of the Dynastic period, the arc became double, but during the period of the Old Kingdom the bow arc again became single. Arrows were made from reed stalks, supplied with three feathers at the rear end; the tips were first made of hardwood or flint, later the bronze tips spread. The length of the bow ranged from a meter to two, with a longer length a dense braid was added for greater strength. Pulling a bow with a single arc was difficult, bows with a double arc required less effort.

In the period of the New Kingdom, composite bows, borrowed from the Hyksos Semites who came from Asia, began to be used. Often, such bows were not produced in Egypt, but - like other "advanced" weapons - were imported from the territory of the future Palestine. However, older models of bows with a single arc also did not go out of use, continuing to be used, including during the time of Thutmose III (in the 15th century BC) and Amenhotep II (reigned around 1428-1397 BC. e.) . The use of such a bow required great physical strength, honed skills and many years of practice. An experienced warrior carefully approached the choice of a bow:

Amenhotep II ... tested 300 bows, each of which was hard to pull on - to distinguish really good bows, to distinguish artisans who could not cope with their task from the masters of their craft.

Then we were told that he chose a bow without a flaw that only he could pull.

... he came to the northern shooting range and saw that four targets had been prepared for him there - plates of Asian copper, the thickness of a human palm. The distance between the poles was twenty qubits (1 qubit is approximately 0.5 meters ^[16] ). When His Majesty entered the shooting range in his chariot, similar to the god Mont in his power, he took up his bow and grabbed four arrows from the quiver with one hand at once. Like the god Mont, he shot with a racing chariot. His arrow hit the target, splitting it. He pulled his bow and fired again - and the target made of copper was split again, no one had succeeded in doing this before - to anyone but the mighty pharaoh, whom God Amon himself had made a conqueror and conqueror.

Egyptian artisans never limited themselves to just one type of wood; they often used both domestic and imported wood. For the manufacture of arrows, straight branches and twigs were used, sometimes (very rarely) - trunks of young trees from which thorns were removed. The arrow was made from a reed stem, but a wooden insert was needed at one end of such a stem: the tip was attached to it. The length of a conventional boom ranged from 801 to 851 mm. Four types of arrows were made: with stone tips (leaf-shaped or in the form of a chisel), as well as with tips from hard wood (such tips quickly blunted) ^[17] .

Compound Bow

The composite bow combined lightness and small dimensions with an unrivaled firing range. The bowstring could be pulled over the length of the hand of the shooter. The bow body itself, even without a bowstring, was already creating mechanical stress, so the force with which the arrow was sent to the target was very significant. A simple bow from one solid piece of wood could not compete with the composite in the firing range, nor in the kinetic energy of the arrow. The wooden base of the composite bow was supported by horn inserts on the “stomach” (that is, on the side facing the arrow) so that the bow would not break when pulled. The “back” (that is, the side looking towards the target) of the onion was strengthened with tendons, all of these elements were glued together and covered with birch bark.

Composite onions need more careful handling and require much more materials and efforts for their manufacture, therefore it is always much more expensive than a simple onion from a single piece of wood. In addition, due to the use of glue, composite bows were afraid of moisture and needed to be coated. When the composite bow was not used, it was necessary to remove the bowstring from it and pull it back before use, this operation required a lot of effort and often could be done only by two. All of the above has led to the fact that composite bows were used less often than might be expected based on their high combat qualities. Simple wooden bows never went out of use and continued to be used even during the New Kingdom. Being simple to manufacture and maintain, and therefore cheap, they remained the weapons of the vast majority of infantry soldiers, while composite bows, which made it easy to break through metal scaly armor, were used primarily by chariot troops.

The arrowheads were first made of flint, in the second millennium BC. e. they were replaced by bronze tips - pointed, although they were also obtuse (most likely, arrows with blunt tips were used not for war, but for hunting small game).

Slingers

Throwing stones with a sling required a minimum of skills and equipment. However, slingers in the Egyptian army always remained on the sidelines, giving precedence to archers, and therefore are limitedly demonstrated in written and graphic sources that have come down to us. The most ancient Egyptian images of slingers known to us date back to the 20th century BC. e. Ancient slings were made from organic materials subject to decay, so specimens that have come down to us are the rarest exceptions. Compared to a bow and arrow, a sling was only an auxiliary weapon, designed more likely to divert the attention of the enemy. One of the main advantages of a sling is that it does not need to carry arrows or cartridges with it, throwing stones literally lie under your feet.Subsequently, in the Late period, when the Egyptians learned to massify lead cheaply and cheaply, cast lead balls became shells for throwing: they began to prefer ordinary stones, because with a larger mass of lead shells they had more kinetic energy, and hence deadly force. Lead balls are often labeled ^{[18] [19]} .

• Mejai
• Battle of Megiddo (1457 BC)
• Battle of Kadesh
• Sais battle
• Nine bows

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