The Hermitage ( fr. Hermitage [1] , from the many-valued Greek ἐρημία, ἥ [2] ) is a place of solitude (a small clearing in the park, a lonely place in a grove), a solitary pavilion in parks or gardens [3] [4] . Such structures were widely distributed in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Initially, they served as a place for religious and philosophical reflections of the owner of the estate. Over time, especially in Russia, the Hermitage turned into pavilions with purely entertainment functions. At the same time, the gastronomic element of the functional of such a pavilion prevailed in Russia. The second floor was a dining room, and the first floor was a kitchen [5] .
The pavilion (its history of occurrence and characteristics of the device, its functional purpose and perception by contemporaries) was subjected to a detailed analysis by D. S. Likhachev in his book “Poetry of Gardens: On the Semantics of Garden and Park Styles. Sad as text "and M. N. Sokolov in the book" The Principle of Paradise. Chapters on the iconology of the Garden, the park and the beautiful view. ” Individual buildings were analyzed in their articles and chapters of monographs A. Korndorf, G. Lamarch-Wadel, E. P. Schukin [6] [7] , A. Geyrot [8] , V. Znamenov and V. Tenikhina [9] , L V. Emina [10] .
The origin of the Hermitage
Doctor of Science, art historian Mikhail Sokolov in the book The Principle of Paradise. The chapters on the iconology of the park, the Garden and the beautiful view ”build the Hermitages of the New Time to two main sources: A) to the gardens and buildings of hermits and monasteries; B) to the so-called "secret gardens" ( Italian. "Giardini secreti" ) [11] .
Constructions of hermits and monasteries
Gardens and buildings of hermits and monasteries were modest. Their main decoration was usually a stone-trimmed "paradise" source, often covered with an openwork pavilion (the so-called phial). A small garden became a continuation of each individual cell and surrounded it. This is most typical of the monasteries of the Cartesians (or Carthusians), whose order was founded in the 11th century and was distinguished by the extreme severity of the statute. The cell of the Cartesian is a two-storey building, on the first floor there is a small gallery for walking, a workshop with carpentry accessories. On the second - there are two rooms, the smaller one, decorated with a statue of the Blessed Virgin , is called “Ave Maria”, here the monk reads the prayer “ Ave Maria ”, and the second room is for other prayers, as well as for pious studies and reflections, in which the Cartesian also eats and sleeps This cell is located in the lap of nature. In the "Allegory of the Camadoli Order" by the Spanish artist El Greco (1597), small gardens of this kind cover the ecumenical landscape [12] . The illustration of the manuscript of Gerrada Landsberg 's Garden of Delights depicts a ladder, several figures falling from this ladder, among them a figurine of a hermit who sinned (as seen from the explanatory inscription on the miniature), “taking care of his garden and focusing too much on his plants” [ 13]
The "secret garden" of the Renaissance
For a Renaissance man, a garden is an art space adapted for contemplation. Among the constituent parts of such gardens stood out the “secret garden”, which later became part of the structure of the early modern European parks as their constituent element. It was a site intended not for public receptions and ceremonies, but for the private life of the owner and therefore carefully fenced off from the rest of the territory by phyto-building (dense bosquets and trellis ) and architectural techniques. In the Roman villa “Julia” (named after Pope Julius III ), the “giardino secreto” was created in the 1550s in such a way that, located below the general level of the park, it was not visible from the main entrance, although it was located in the very center of the garden. According to the modern French philosopher Gaetan Lamarch-Wadel expressed in the book The Secret Gardens of the Renaissance ( fr. "Jardins secrets de Renaissance. Des astres, des simples et des prodiges" , 1997) [14] , the occult nature of the "giardini secreti" is possible: from the point of view of the author, they were so called, since they were intended to practice various secret disciplines [15] .
Petrarch and his successors glorified the natural "giardini secreti" , arranged by hand, later there was a fashion for the construction and planning of the artificial "giardini secreti" . Francesco di Giorgio Martini, in his “Treatise on Architecture” (1486), noted that “decent places that meet the desires of philosophers and poets” are necessary in decent gardens. Such "caches" were intended both for domestic leisure, especially in hot weather, and for enlightened thoughts (and therefore, often included buildings with a cabinet). They became a feature of the Renaissance- Baroque gardens, and then led to the emergence of the Hermitage (a secluded corner, designated not only landscape , but also architecturally) [16] .
The Hermitage is first mentioned in the treatise Jacques Androuet Ducercaux I of the Most Beautiful Buildings of France (1579): it depicts the residence of Cardinal Ambois in Guyon , including the giardino secreto, but in its entirety it was not realized, but we only know it from the drawing. At one end of the canal, the cardinal was going to place the castle-palace, and at the other end - the hermitage with a cave and a mountain. MN Sokolov believes that the composition, underlined by the shape of reservoirs (a canal with an oblong pond), resembles scales frozen in balance between sensual and spiritual values. By the 17th century, the Hermitage was already included in the garden layout [17] .
Types of Hermitage in the New Time
According to modern researchers in the XVIII — XIX centuries in Europe there were two main types of Hermitage:
- A small rural palace, opposed to a large parade standing nearby [18] .
- Hermitage.
Academician Dmitry Likhachev writes about this:
“The Hermitage was of the most diverse types, and each of the types had its own symbolic meaning, which was transmitted to the whole garden: the Hermitage was the emblem and“ motto ”of the garden where it was located. John Dickson Hunt leads several emblematic types of Hermitage. The most traditional type of the Hermitage, which dates back to the Middle Ages, is the abode of a Christian, hermit monk . Another type is a place of solitary thinking of a secular garden visitor. Of course, almost a few of the owners of the gardens indulged in solitary reflections in such a Hermitage. Most likely, these Hermitages served as a symbol, an emblem of a garden, and in them occasionally people could hide from the weather, darkness, and storms. ”
- Likhachev D. C. The Poetry of Gardens: On the Semantics of Garden and Park Styles. Sad as text [18]
Some common features of the Hermitage
Most often, both types of Hermitage were not used for their intended purpose - for "specific" solitary reflections, but had entertainment value. This is confirmed by the poems of Thomas Wharton from The Amenity of Melancholy : “A place for pious reflection, for solitude and reflection; even if he rarely used it, only to think about his weekly worries or sit with him and have fun with him, drink, smoke and just spit ” [18] .
There are certain decorative- landscape traditions associated with the Hermitage as a whole. One of them is “dead tree”. The horticultural history of the dead tree is made to begin with William Kent , who, according to Horace Walpole (“Notes on Horticulture”), “planted” in London Kensington Garden (in the 1730s) dead trees to give the landscape more believability, but caused this ridicule contemporaries who could not appreciate his plan. The décor of the architecture of the “dead tree” was promoted by the decor of the architecture of the garden and hermitage, which was often introduced with stylized stumps, snags and old trunks. In the 19th century, the English term “ phoenix tree ” ( English “phoenix tree” ) took root, meaning a revived “ tree ruin ” [19] .
Both types of Hermitage in Great Britain, especially towards the end of the 18th century, abounded with signs of otherness, from tombstones , usually fictitious, but sometimes real, to the bones, which laid down the floors of some English garden Hermitages (sheep, but not human, but bones) [20 ] .
Hermitage - a small palace in Western Europe
In the semantic system of garden styles, the Hermitage had the most diverse meaning, often very different from its main one - to serve as the habitat of the hermit (Hermitage). From the 17th century, they were usually placed on the border itself or outside the “fenced garden” ( Latin hortus conclusus ) - outside the garden’s fence, where the garden was replaced by wilderness, in a wooded corner, in the shade, away from the sun, usually were some surprise for the walkers [21] .
Parks in the XVIII — XIX centuries opened the gates for wide sections of society. Not only the representative of the court elite could come to many aristocratic "edemas", but also a raznochinets , decently dressed and properly behaving. Since 1730, in the small Hermitage park, hosted by Richmond for Queen Caroline , the couple of George II , visitors strolled around the established days and then published their critical opinions about him in the press [22] .
Various variants of the Hermitage in the 18th century
Pavilion "Cell Magdalen " built in the years 1725-1728 by Joseph Effner in the park " Nymphenburg " near Munich . The lobby and the chapel are in the shape of a grotto. The apartments of the Elector in it are an entrance hall, a study, a dining room, a palace chapel . All rooms are ascetic, made in the style of medieval monastic cells of the Order of the Capuchins , they are lined with oak and decorated with engravings . The purpose of the pavilion - to retire, to hide from the world, while maintaining the usual comfort [23] .
Sometimes the Hermitage pavilions acquire an oriental flavor; This category includes Pagodenburg (“The Castle Pagoda ”, 1719) in Munich “Nymphenburg”, its repetition of the same name in Rastatt (1722) or the Chinese house in San Susi (1755) (with the interior of visionary-fairy-tale chinoiserie ) [24] . Temple of the Druids with thatched roofs in the gardens of Richmond (1748), Hermitage in Arabic style, and with reed roofs in the "Chinese taste", painted for Richmond by Edward Stevens (1740), the Hermitage in the style of Eden were intended to indulge in pleasures of melancholy ( melancholy was supposed to bring pleasant thoughts about the frailty of the existing, often symbolized by ancient ruins), suggest reflections on unity with nature (this was served by grottoes, often built on the mountainside) or "theatrical" staying in the garden [25] .
Sometimes the “hermitage” hut was the result of a considerable amount of money invested by the owner of the estate. There was a whole Valley of Philosophers in Wilhelmshöhe - a small lowland, located next to a building called the Hermitage of Socrates . The “green room” (not a separate pavilion, but a whole section of the garden) in Belaye , which belonged to Prince Charles-Joseph de Ligne , differed in complexity . Next to the “cabinet of the philosopher” was a section of the “Ages of Life” with Belrei with genre sculptures. The "office" was a stream flowing "of floral enamels and gilt gravel silver pebbles ", is a statue of Voltaire (in " The lattice of Winter Rose"), sculptural portraits of La Fontaine , Molière , Montesquieu , Delisle , Rousseau and Helvetius , the statue of Fortune and Pluto (next to the incomprehensible from the context of the story of the contemporary "the abyss of non-existence"). The site on a small coastal meadow included several “hermitage huts”. The Temple of Truth was created from massive stone blocks, and the Temple of Illusion is decorated with glass strings and “new metal imitating silver ” (apparently, zinc ). Mikhail Sokolov believes that the descriptions of contemporaries of this complex could combine reality and design, which was never realized [24] .
The paramount value for de Lin, as a typical intellectual of the Enlightenment, was “the delight of blissful souls” (the same opinion was shared by the humanists of the Renaissance and Baroque). Researchers consider the park of Nadezhdino Prince A. B. Kurakin to be analogous in Russia. “Only in de Lin's dreams, ideas and impressions everything looks even easier, more relaxed, not requiring such a detailed registry ” [26] .
The hunting chalet of the Danish and Norwegian King Frederick IV , located in the Deer Park in the town of Jagersborg in the north of Copenhagen , was also called the Hermitage. This structure has not reached our time, images have not been preserved, but there are verbal descriptions. It was a small two-storey pavilion-belvedere, built in 1694 by order of King Christian V , the father of Frederick IV, court architect Hans van Stenwinkel the Younger . It was located on a hill in the center of hunting grounds and received two names at once: the French Hermitage (Eremitagen) and the Danish Hubertus House (Hubertushuset). Saint Hubert was considered the patron saint of hunters, opticians and mechanics, and the manor was not only used for hunting, but was also built according to the latest mechanics. There were a mechanical table (dropped on the first floor for serving dishes) and a lift elevator for guests [5] .
Often after this, the small “summer” palace, styled as a rural dwelling and supplementing the big one located nearby [27] , became known as the Hermitage. In the XVIII century, the Hermitage could also be a two-story building; on the ground floor there were cooks and servants who cooked and served food, which was delivered to the upper floor on elevators, where a narrow circle of guests of the estate owner gathered, but in Western Europe such a “gastronomic” Hermitage was more rare than the rule [28] .
Hermitage in Russia
The Russian Hermitage in St. Petersburg , in Tsarskoye Selo and Petergof were not similar in meaning to the hermit's hut. They were openly meant for entertainment. The Swiss astronomer Johann Bernoulli , traveling around Russia, wrote that the Russians call their pavilions the term “Hermitage”, but do not understand its essence: “You will not find anything in common with our Hermitages with ours - these are prestigious palaces of the Empress and aristocrats, intended for confidential dinners " [29] . The main difference between the Russian Hermitage and the European ones is that they were not built away from the main house or the palace for the owner’s privacy to think or communicate with nature, but were entertainment pavilions that have a “confidential dining room” with a special mechanical lifting table. Their only predecessor, described in detail by contemporaries (although not preserved), researchers believe in the Western Europe is the Danish Hermitage of Christian V [30] .
In this respect, according to Academician Likhachov, the Petrine Hermitages in Peterhof - Monplaisir and Marley are characteristic. One of them was built by Peter I for recreation, the other for entertainment. In Tsarskoe Selo, from the point of view of Likhachev, there were two Hermitages: the Hermitage proper, built by Rastrelli , and the Grotto . The grotto was to serve as a symbol of connection with nature, as well as a sign and place of solitary thinking. Here was the "hermit" - Voltaire : it was here when Catherine II was a marble sculpture of a sitting Voltaire by Jean-Antoine Houdon [25] .
The most famous park Hermitage in the territory of modern Russia
- Hermitage in the Lower Park of Peterhof. Date of construction: 1721-1725, architect Johann Friedrich Braunstein (years of life are unknown). Built on the shores of the Gulf of Finland in the western part of the Lower Park. The idea of its construction arose from Peter during his trip to Europe. The Peterhof seaside pavilion served as a prototype for other Russian “Hermitages”. The main attraction of it was a lifting mechanism, operating with manual traction [28] .
- The Hermitage Pavilion in the Catherine Park in Tsarskoye Selo . The pavilion was built in 1743-1753 simultaneously with the construction of the Catherine Palace by architects A.V. Kvasov , S.I. Chevakinsky , the final design belongs to Bartolomeo Rastrelli . Two-storey octahedral pavilion with four extensions on the sides. The pavilion is located on an artificial island, is surrounded on all sides by water and enclosed by a balustrade . You can cross over to the island by lifting bridges over the moat.
- The Hermitage Pavilion (1765-1767) in Kuskovo . The pavilion was intended for friends of the owner of the estate who wanted to retire during balls. The second floor was accessible only by a mechanical elevator. The ground floor was intended for servants, drinks and snacks were served using an elegant lift table.
- The Hermitage Pavilion in Bykov, near Moscow (not preserved) - a two-story building on a low basement, served as a home concert hall. Built in the style of classicism in the 70s of the XVIII century. The author of the project is Matvey Kazakov . The central part was a round hall with an area of about 60 square meters, along the outer perimeter it was dissected by pilasters , between which statues in the lower floor were located. От главного входа шёл спуск к воде, где располагалась пристань, украшенная вазами и статуями детей [31] .
- Павильон Эрмитаж в усадьбе « Черёмушки-Знаменское » под Москвой (ныне в Черёмушках , районе Москвы), построенный в стиле классицизм. Известно, что в подобных постройках частных, а не императорских усадеб, устраивались танцы, чтения, концерты, выставлялись картины и статуи [32] .
С конца XVIII века не только отдельное здание с живым монахом или его скульптурным изображением, но и целый усадебно-парковый комплекс мог называться «пустыня» (при этом подразумевалось не аскетическое усмирение плоти, а эстетическое наслаждение просвещённого владельца, далёкое от телесных утех). Этот смысл придавал слову «пустынный» А. С. Пушкин , обозначая им дворец князя Николая Юсупова в Архангельском («К вельможе», 1830). Барский дом в Кусково именовался «домом уединения» (хотя преобладали под подобным названием небольшие постройки, например, беседка-«пустынка» в Богородицком) [33] .
Эрмитаж в Санкт-Петербурге
Государственный Эрмитаж Растрелли в Санкт-Петербурге — огромное здание, оно не похоже ни на один из типов парковых эрмитажей. Для объяснения его названия Лихачёв предложил следующую гипотезу. Голландские сады были более «утилитарны», чем итало-французские. По-видимому, утилитарное значение — служить местом развлечений — отодвинуло на второй план эмблематическое значение эрмитажа, которое не было воспринято уже Петром I. Пётр пользовался своими эрмитажами для частных развлечений. Эрмитаж Екатерины II развлекал императрицу среди произведений искусства, «но семантическая связь с садом в эмбриональной форме сохранилась: на уровне второго этажа в Петербургском Эрмитаже появился „ висячий сад “ — род „hortulus conclusus“, типа монастырского, с большим количеством искусственных гнёзд для птиц, которые своим пением и воркованием, вместе с благоуханием пахучих трав и цветов, должны были напоминать императрице о самом главном семантическом прототипе всех европейских садов вообще — Эдеме » [25] .
Павильон «Эрмитаж» в Екатерининском парке
Грот в Екатерининском парке Царского Села
Павильон «Эрмитаж» в Петергофе
«Эрмитаж» в Кусково
Неизвестный фотограф начала XX века. «Эрмитаж» в усадьбе Быково (не сохранился)
Павильон «Эрмитаж» в усадьбе «Черёмушки-Знаменское»
Notes
- ↑ Попов М. Эрмитаж // Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в употребление в русском языке. — М. : Типография товарищества И. Д. Сытина, 1911. — С. 458. — 466 с.
- ↑ Его основные значения: 1) пустынное место, пустыня, εἰς ἐρημίας ἀποχωρεῖν Arst., 2) степь, ἐρημία Σκυθῶν Arph., 3) одиночество, уединение, ἐρημίαν ἄγειν или ἔχειν и ἐρημίας τυχεῖν Eur. — жить в одиночестве, быть одиноким, 4) покинутость, οἱ δι΄ ἐρημίαν ἄλλοις προσιόντες Thuc. — те, которые будучи оставлены (одними союзниками), обращаются к другим, 5) лишённость, отсутствие, недостаток, ἐρημίᾳ ἀνδρῶν Thuc. — из-за недостатка в людях — Перевод ἐρημία. Древнегреческо-русский словарь Дворецкого . DicipediA. Дата обращения 26 июня 2017. )
- ↑ Чудинов А. Н. Эрмитаж // Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка. — М. : Издание книгопродавца В. И. Губинского, Типография С. Н. Худекова, 1910. — 1004 с.
- ↑ Крысин Л. П. Эрмитаж // Толковый словарь иностранных слов. — М. : Эксмо, 2006. — 944 с. — (Библиотека словарей).
- ↑ 1 2 Корндорф, 2014 , с. 278—279.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 .
- ↑ Лихачёв, 1998 .
- ↑ Гейрот А. Эрмитаж // Описание Петергофа. - SPb. , 1868. — 130 с. - 10 000 copies
- ↑ Знаменов В., Тенихина В. Эрмитаж. Павильон-музей XVIII века в нижнем парке Петродворца. — Л. : Лениздат, 1973. — 64 с. - 10 000 copies
- ↑ Емина Л. В. Эрмитаж // Музеи и парки Пушкина. — Л. : Издательство Императорской Академии наук, 1976. — С. 59—61. - 100 000 copies
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 408-434.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 408.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 411—412. Примечания.
- ↑ Lamarche-Vadel, Gaëtane. Jardins secrets de Renaissance. Des astres, des simples et des prodiges. — Paris; Montréal: L'Harmattan, 1997. — 187 с. — ISBN 2-7384-5344-9 .
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 433-434.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 434.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 484.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Лихачёв, 1998 , с. 42
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 629.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 631.
- ↑ Лихачёв, 1998 , с. 41
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 572.
- ↑ Павильон Келья Магдалины (Magdalenenklause) Парка Нимфенбург . MunchenGuide. The appeal date is June 29, 2017.
- ↑ 1 2 Соколов, 2011 , с. 637.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Лихачёв, 1998 , с. 43.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 606 Примечания.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 580.
- ↑ 1 2 Павильон «Эрмитаж» . ГМЗ «Петергоф». Дата обращения 26 июня 2017.
- ↑ Корндорф, 2014 , с. 271—272.
- ↑ Корндорф, 2014 , с. 272.
- ↑ Щукина, 2007 , с. 113—144, 205, 348.
- ↑ Щукина, 2007 , с. 205.
- ↑ Соколов, 2011 , с. 485.
Literature
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- Лихачёв Д. C. Поэзия садов: К семантике садово-парковых стилей. Сад как текст. — М. : Согласие, 1998. — 356 с. — ISBN 5-868М-075-5.
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- Свирида И. И. Locus amoenus // Метаморфозы в пространстве культуры. — М. : Индрик, 2009. — 464 с.
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