Colorism

Discrimination of persons with a darker skin tone has been recorded since ancient times, when in Asian countries ^[3] (India, China, Korea, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, etc.) ^{[4] [5]} light skin was associated with a noble origin. At that time, working peasants worked all day on the street under the sun, and the nobility had the opportunity to hide from the sun, from which their skin tone was noticeably lighter than that of the peasants. ^[3] Light skin was associated with female beauty, therefore, for example, in China, Korea and Japan, noble women generously covered their faces with white powder. Today in Asia, the prejudice about dark skin is still strong and fueled by Western ideas about the ideal of beauty. ^[6]

The roots of Western colorism go to the period of colonization, when the idea of ​​racial superiority of whites dominated. Dark skin was associated with irrationality, savagery, inferiority, and ugliness. And the European appearance (white skin, straight and blond hair, blond eyes), on the contrary, was characterized by nobility, beauty, superiority. These contrasting definitions are the basis of colorism. Skin color discrimination first appeared in the United States among Latinos and African Americans before the American Civil War , during the time of colonization and slavery. Depending on the skin tone, white slave owners gave slaves with lighter skin (sometimes they were illegitimate children of slave owners and their slaves) with great privileges, such as: housework, not in the field, the opportunity to study, read and even (with rare exceptions ) liberation from slavery. After the abolition of slavery, depending on the skin tone, the division of people into privileged and unprivileged groups continued. ^[7]

There is a version that colorism appeared long before colonization. In the documentary film " Shade " (English shade - shadow), one of the heroines, a young woman from Sri Lanka, explains that colorism appeared in India. In the ancient Indian epic of Ramayana, there is a scene that depicts a fight between a noble king from the North, who has a light skin tone, and a dark-skinned king from the South, associated with evil forces.

The term “colorism” - a biased appeal to people of the same race, based solely on the color of their skin - appeared thanks to the African-American writer and public figure Alice Walker , who first used it in her essay in 1983, published in the book “Looking for Gardens,” mothers planted: Prose of a woman. " She defined colorism as evil, a disease that needs to be stopped and African Americans allowed to live and develop without prejudice.

Colorism is manifested in various spheres of life: employers prefer light-skinned black applicants, regardless of their qualifications. ^[8] In popular culture, the majority are actors, musicians, comedians with fair skin, ^[9] in Bollywood, preference is given to actresses with lighter skin, ^[10] and people with dark skin are given the least interesting roles, and their salary is much lower. In the modeling business, black girls are still the exception. ^[11] It is easier for people with fair skin to get a high-quality education, to rent, to buy housing in a prosperous area, women with a lighter skin tone are more likely to marry people of a higher social status than black women of the same ethnic group. ^[12] In 2013, Lance Hannon, Robert DeFina, and Sarah Bruch conducted a study that found that students with darker skin were three times more likely to be expelled from school. About how global the problem of colorism is indicated by the growing popularity of whitening cosmetics in Africa, Asia and the USA, as well as the rapid development of plastic surgery.

India

India is a prime example where in a society with a wide variety of skin tones; from white to almost black, the ideas of colorism reign, in particular the association of fair skin with power, wealth, success and beauty. This even manifests itself in religious art, where for example Shiva , Krishna or Rama are depicted with blue or snow-white skin, but not dark. ^[13]

Strengthening the ideas of colorism was influenced by the historical association of fair skin with a noble origin due to the fact that nobles had the opportunity to hide from the sun, as well as the British colonial period, when the British colonists humiliated swarthy Indians to a greater extent and preferred to hire more light-skinned people ^[14] . The reign of Britain, even more deeply rooted prejudices associated with skin color and which are still strong in society ^[15] . In India, whitening creams are very popular ^[16] . The colorism affects women the most, for whom light skin color is associated with beauty. In India, to this day, cases are widespread when women are denied employment because of their too dark skin tone. At the same time, there are women's rights organizations in the country that help such women ^[17] . Light-skinned models are used for advertising, as actors, they also prefer light-skinned models, as a result, the appearance of actors in Bollywood films does not match the appearance of the average Indians ^[18] . Moreover, for men, selection by appearance is not as important as for women. For the same reason, a girl with an insufficiently light skin tone has almost zero chances in India to advance on an acting career ^[19] . Nevertheless, a small number of such women manage to break into the film industry, for example, Nandite Tas . The actress became an activist for the rights of black women after an unpleasant incident when she was denied the role of a noble woman because of the “wrong” skin color. Nandita later became a director and tries to invite women with different skin tones to play the role of ^[20] . Freuda Pinto - one of the most famous actresses of Indian origin, but starring in foreign films ^[21] . Nevertheless, Freuda is little known inside India, and Bollywood itself is not interested in taking the actress for roles in Indian cinema because of Freud’s overly dark skin tone, because of this she does not fit into the stereotypical image of the heroine of Bollywood cinema ^{[22] [23]} . Sabayasachi Mukherjee, the only Indian fashion designer in the country who invites models of all skin tones, also fights with colorism ^[20] .

Maiyura Ayer, a well-known Indian blogger, told The Huffington Post in an interview with herself that she had experienced colourism in Indian society, in particular, she said that as a child she had lighter skin than her surroundings and constantly heard laudatory comments and tips to avoid walking outside. When Mayura grew up and her skin darkened, compliments were replaced by reproaches, micro-aggression , tips on how to whiten the skin and comments from strangers to cover the hips or legs with clothes so that the skin does not tan. For this reason, Mayura developed a strong inferiority complex, which was supported by numerous advertisements for skin whitening. The editors noted that, for example, Nina Davaluri , Miss America of 2014 of Indian origin, with her skin color, would not have the slightest chance of becoming Miss India. ^[24]

Colorism also affects families. Many couples dream of having a bright baby, often newborns are compared with their older sisters or brothers. Traditional medicine involves a pregnant woman to adhere to a certain diet in order to allegedly give birth to a brighter child. The desire to have fair children becomes a source of income for charlatans, who after "special sessions" guarantee the appearance of a fair-skinned child. Studies in 2012 showed that if a couple who wanted to have a child turned to the services of a surrogate mother, she left the choice to a fair-skinned woman, suggesting that this would affect the skin color of the child. ^[25]

Far East

The ideas of colorism are strong in the Far East and have existed for centuries, since white skin has been associated with nobility and today, under the influence of modern media, is fueled by Western ideas about the ideals of beauty ^[26] . Many traditional oriental tales connect pale-skinned characters with beauty, power, or divinity. ^[6] .

For example, in Japan, due to the fact that workers and peasants, working on the street, acquired a strong tan, as well as the indigenous and now extinct mountain peoples had a darker skin tone, dark skin became associated with primitiveness and poverty ^[26] . White skin was associated with female beauty above all. A woman with physical disabilities, but with white skin and without moles, was still considered more beautiful than any swarthy woman ^[26] . In Japan, the proverb to this day is popular: "the remaining seven defects are forgiven a person with white skin" ^[26] . In Japanese painting, people, especially women, are usually depicted with completely white skin. Already from the XII century, court ladies applied a large amount of white powder to their faces to give their faces snowy whiteness, such a standard of beauty existed until the XIX century ^[26] . In Korea, it is known for certain that starting from the Kochoson era, the white, marbled skin color was considered the ideal of beauty for a woman ^{[4] [27]} .

In modern Japan, fair skin is still associated with beauty, a high mind and affects the ability of a woman to marry successfully. The country still has the Omiai tradition, in which potential husband and wife get to know each other to decide whether they should live together. There are still stories in the country when a partner refused a possible marriage due to the too dark skin color of another partner, most often a woman. ^[28] . It is noteworthy that in Japan after the 2000s, a subculture that tested against whiteness as a standard of beauty, namely the ganguro, gained great popularity ^[29] . These representatives have put forward for themselves an alternative ideal of beauty, which came from the modern culture of the USA, more precisely California, namely the “blonde with a tan,” as a result of the ganguro, they seek to acquire a tan from copper to brown, and also dye their hair white ^{[30] [31]} .

The ideas of colorism are also strong in China and Korea, where fair skin remains a sign of noble birth, power and health, and fair-skinned Asians are faced with admiration, many people, in particular women, specially hide themselves from the sun with umbrellas or a mask so as not to tan. More dark-skinned Asians face micro-aggression or become victims of bullying at school ^[32] . 4 out of 10 women in Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines and South Korea use periodically bleaching creams, while sunbathing on the beach remains an extremely unpopular practice. ^[33]

In Malaysia, modern colorism was formed largely under the influence of the Western idea of ​​the superiority of whites and lies in the fact that the Eurasian appearance, or “pan-Asian” (of mixed European and Malaysian origin), is associated with beauty ^[34] . As a result, half-breeds become models for advertising or actors ^[35] .

North Africa and the Middle East

Due to the wide range of settlement, modern Arabs and other Middle Eastern, Bedouin peoples are distinguished by their great cultural and external diversity. Arabs themselves also differ in great racial diversity from relatively light-skinned Tunisians, Algerians, to swarthy Somalis and Yemenis ^[36] . The modern colorism among the Arabs has been fixed since ancient times, when the Arabs used blacks as slaves, many of them assimilated and adopted the Arab culture, religion and language, but other Arabs still call them the derogatory word “abd”, which means “slave” and treat as inferior people. Slavery of blacks (Africans, Yemenis, Somalis, etc.) still flourishes in such rich Arab countries as the UAE ^[36] .

Moreover, due to the fact that light-skinned Arabs consider black Arabs, as a rule Somalis or Yemenis, not real representatives of their nation, but assimilated descendants of slaves, this issue is discussed not only as a phenomenon of colorism, but also as a complete racism. At the same time, none of the modern Arab states makes attempts to combat slavery and discrimination by color, preferring to concentrate on the problem of terrorism or justifying itself by protecting traditional values ^[36] . Similarly, the discussion of the problems of colorism and racism of Arabs against blacks remains taboo in the Arab society, which prefers to consider itself as a victim of racism and Islamophobia from the Western world and Israelis ^[37] . Among 22 modern Arab countries, 8 of them are countries with a predominantly black population. If an Arab with a pronounced “Nubian or Ethiopian” appearance is among other fairer Arabs, he will begin to face constant difficulties in communication, employment, people around him will constantly doubt or dispute his affiliation with the Arabs ^[36] , such a person, regardless of gender and age may even become a victim of unmotivated aggression or bullying in the street, and as a rule no one will stand up for his defense ^[38] . A paradoxical situation is emerging, for example, in black-skinned Yemeni communities, which, despite their skin color, continue to be associated with poverty and slavery, the Yemeni stigmatizes and humiliates those who even have a slightly darker skin than himself. Among unmarried women, whitening products are very popular, since female beauty is associated with the whiteness of the skin, local advertising also supports this formula. Especially diligently brighten their skin girls before the wedding ^[39] . Too dark skin color of a girl is a common reason for rejection of a wedding by the groom’s parents ^[40] .

The strong ideas of Arab colorism to some extent drive countries with predominantly black Arabs into isolation, who at the same time seek to find a new identity that is distinguishable from the Arab. Nevertheless, from the point of view of Native Africans, such people still remain “alien to them” Arabs. Black Arabs face a similar problem in Europe or the USA, which the rest of the Arab diaspora recognizes as strangers, as does the Negro ^[38] .

The situation is different among different Jewish groups within Israel. The basic idea of ​​the Zionist movement involves the unification of various Jewish groups into a single nation of Israel. However, the situation is complicated by the fact that different groups of Jews were formed in isolation from each other for almost two thousand years, which led to a huge difference between these groups not only in the matter of culture and language, but also race. The Ashkenazi are included in the modern Jewish nation, they are also “white Jews” - immigrants from the former USSR countries and to a lesser extent Germany and France (descendants of Jewish migrants before the Holocaust ), “swarthy Jews”, Sephardim - immigrants from Spain, mizrahim - immigrants from Arab and Muslim countries and finally Ethiopian Jews , or “black Jews”. Despite the imaginary formation of a single nation, a social hierarchy based on colorism instantly formed between these groups. Ashkenazi, or white Jews, became the privileged and wealthy ruling class, and Ethiopian Jews became the most marginalized group with an even more vulnerable position than the Palestinian Arabs . On the one hand, Ashkenazi feel superior to the rest of the Jews, and on the other hand, Sephardim and Mizrakhim consider themselves true Jews and constantly question the Ashkenazi’s membership in the Jewish nation, considering them too white, Europeanized, “Russian aliens”. In Israel, skin color is equivalent to social status, a person with fair skin is considered to come from a prosperous family and with education, black skin is equated to poverty and instability, a black Jew has multiple chances of becoming a victim of police brutality ^[41] .

Europe and the USA

Historically, the colorism in Europe and among the white population in America was expressed in the traditional ideals of female beauty, which required a woman to have pale skin as a sign of noble birth. Until the first half of the twentieth century, middle-class women and noblewomen used a variety of methods to whiten their skin. In an effort to give the skin an unnaturally pale color, women resorted to the use of dangerous substances that could leave chemical burns on the skin or even cause cancer or death. In the 19th century, tanning was perceived as an “enemy of female beauty," so women tried their best to avoid direct contact with sunlight, wearing wide hats or wearing an umbrella from the sun. By the 1970s, in Europe and the USA, most whitening products were banned because they contained substances that were harmful to the skin. ^[42]

Today, colorism is manifested in Europe when it comes to migrants of non-European origin who have a variety of skin tones ^{[43] [44] [45] [46] [47]} , in particular, studies conducted in Britain, Sweden and Italy showed that people tend to look for a connection between the skin tone of foreigners and their crime. In addition, it was noted that the judiciary in a number of Western European countries deals with migrants more severely, especially if they are black, ^{[43] [45] [46] [48] [49] [50] [51]} . In addition, studies have shown that the difficulty in finding work in Europe and the United States is associated with skin tone, the darker it is, the less potential employer trusts a person. ^{[52] [53] [54]}

Coloring in the USA is directly connected with ideas about white supremacy, where in North America there are historically non-white peoples; Africans and Indians were considered as inferior people, however people of mixed, partially white origin on the one hand were still regarded as “people of color”, but they were considered “more reasonable” and already had more chances to become a full member of society and find decent work ^{[55 ]} . The colonists formed the idea that the closer a person is to the white race, the more perfect he is. White slave owners gave the mulattos easier work as janitors, servants, and cooks. Purebred Negro slaves worked on plantations and other dirty / hard work ^{[56] [57]} . Over time, the colonists began to use the “brown paper test”; if the slave's skin color was lighter than the color of the paper, he was allowed to work in the house ^[58] . The brown paper test was used not only by white colonists, but also by other black ones using slave force. A door test was also popular, according to which if the skin color was darker than the color of the door, then the person was not allowed to enter through the door. Similar tests were used in some African-American clubs and churches to prevent “too black” visitors. ^[59] . The practice of not allowing too black members into any community was widely used in colleges and universities with a black majority. ^[60]

Despite the increased fight against racial discrimination in the United States, African Americans with a lighter skin tone still have more opportunities to prove themselves in the media industry ^[61] . Studies show that more light-skinned African-American women have higher salaries and greater job satisfaction than women with darker skin ^[62] . Most African Americans still associate lighter skin with beauty, especially children ^[63] , and when looking for partners, they seek to find a lighter-skinned partner. ^[64]

Latin America

A peculiar manifestation of colorism existed in pre-Columbian Indian civilizations, similar to how it manifested itself in Asian countries. A lighter skin tone was associated with a noble origin due to the uselessness of the nobility to work under the sun. Although a dark copper skin tone is natural for Central American Indians, a “yellow” skin color was considered the ideal of feminine beauty. For example, Aztec women from wealthy and noble families “brightened” their skin with yellow paint ^[65] .

Modern colorism in the countries of Central and South America has formed in a similar way that in the USA or Africa, against the background of the colonial policies of the Western powers, promoting the superiority of the white race over the rest; white male slave owners imported black slaves for hard work on plantations or forced the local Native American population to work ^[66] . From the union of white men and Negro / Indian women, half-blood children were born who received many privileges, such as freedom, the ability to own property, land, and education. Nevertheless, the mulattoes and mestizos did not possess the same rights as whites ^[67] . Over time, in the process of further cross-breeding of the population, lighter skin and a European appearance gave a person privileges, a higher social status and the possibility of self-fulfillment ^{[67] [68]} . Today, despite the fact that the population of Central and South America consists of mestizos and mulattos , their modern culture, which has developed for centuries under the superiority of whites and the inferiority of blacks, has led to the fact that lighter skin is associated with power, success and attractiveness. Mulattos tend to despise the black population ^[69] . A vivid example of the relationship to the skin and race can be called the Dominican Republic , whose population consists mainly of mulattos. Dominicans tend to look at Haitian neighbors (descendants of black slaves who have not been metalized) as inferior and wild people ^[69] . Haitians in the Dominican Republic are faced with xenophobic sentiments. Moreover, many Dominicans themselves may have predominant black roots, but for the sake of higher social status, they consider themselves to be mulattoes. Some studies show a connection with the skin color of the Dominican and his income level ^[70] . Beauty standards, which are manifested in advertising and cinema, promote the ideal of beauty of a light-skinned mulatto, almost white with straight hair and a narrow nose ^[71] . At the same time, African features such as curly hair and a wide nose are opposed to the ideals of beauty ^[72] . In Haiti, as well as other countries where the population is “too black” to be classified as a mulatto, for example, in Jamaica , the idea that light skin is a sign of beauty and success is also strong among people, which makes many people use bleaching creams and fair-skinned people are more likely to find the desired job. ^{[73] [74]}

Brazil is the country with the largest black population in the world outside of Africa, however, mulattos are more socially mobile than blacks. ^[75] . Among the elite and politicians, people of white or predominantly white origin absolutely dominate. Skin tint is directly related to inequalities in health, education, and income ^[76] . A recent study even finds that skin color is a stronger marker of social inequality in Brazil than classifying oneself as a race (based on census data) ^[77] . Thus, racism and colorism within a country are different phenomena and the second has more consequences for a person. Despite the fact that black people and mulattos with predominant African roots make up more than 50 percent of the population, they make up less than 25 percent of elected politicians. ^[78]

A unique study conducted in 2016 involved a long-term observation of twins with different skin colors, but with approximately the same knowledge about school subjects. As a result, it was found that the darker twin was more likely to have a biased attitude from teachers on the part of the teachers, with worse grades ^[79] . A similar study in 2015 showed that teachers tend to give lighter students good grades, while black children, on the contrary, underestimate grades. This leads to the fact that often compassionate black students get the same marks as more light-skinned students with worse academic performance. ^[80]

The fight against colorism in modern Latin American countries is significantly complicated by the fact that in society this topic is still taboo. According to Denmark Santana, a human rights activist and writer, conversations are still commonplace in South America that black people are inferior, stupid and aggressive, and such opinions come from the mouths of people who themselves are partly of black origin or may even have black relatives. The colorism according to Denmark is so deeply penetrated in society that it affects a person’s life in literally everything. Denmark believes that in order to combat colorism, one should first of all start with mulatto families, where very often lighter children with straight hair meet better attitude and admiration among relatives, in fair children this develops a sense of superiority, and in darker children - a feeling of inferiority or envy. ^[81]

Africa

Colorism in Africa formed after the colonial period with ideas about the racial superiority of whites. People of mixed origin (having a white father) received certain social privileges that the blacks were deprived of. This has strengthened the belief in African countries that a lighter skin tone is associated with success and beauty. For example, in South Africa, whitening creams, which black women use to whiten their faces, are very popular in order to become “more beautiful” and have a greater chance to get married. Recently, whitening creams have become increasingly popular among men. Во многих городах можно встретить множество женщин, чей оттенок лица резко отличается от цвета кожи остального тела. Так как население не имеет доступ к качественным и дорогостоящим кремам, они покупают их на чёрном рынке, что несёт за собой риски, так как подобные крема содержат токсичные вещества, которые могут нанести химические ожоги коже. В Нигерии количество людей, использующих отбеливающие средства достигает 77%, в Того — это 59% населения, в ЮАР — 35%, а Мали — 25%. Внутри чёрного сообщества более смуглая кожа ассоциируется с бедностью и опасностью ^[82] .

Отбеливание кожи повышает социальный статус женщины в глазах общественности, во многом на это влияет местная реклама, использующая моделей с заметно осветлённой кожей, а также телевидение, где в местных программах или фильмах принимают участие женщины с неестественно светлым цветом кожи. Другая причина заключается в желании мужчин встречаться или женится на более светлокожих женщинах, в результате слишком смуглой девушке сложно найти партнёра и не возможно стать телеведущей/актрисой или моделью, она может стать жертвой издевательств, особенно в школе. Периодическое использование отбеливающих средств несёт за собой высокие риски. Часто дешёвые крема из чёрного рынка содержат в себе свинец и другие отравляющие вещества, которые в лучшем случае станут причиной ороговения кожи и тёмных пятен, в худшем случае — вызывают химические ожоги на коже и затем шрамы, или даже рак кожи. В Сенегале например существуют целые отрасли медицины, занимающиеся помощью людям, которые пострадали от ожогов отбеливающими средствами ^[83] .

Расовая дискриминация и колоризм неразрывно связаны между собой. Расизм - это более масштабный системный социальный процесс. Колоризм является одним из его проявлений. ^[84]

Люди различных рас могут иметь одинаковый оттенок кожи, и, наоборот, люди одной этнической группы могут иметь разный цвет кожи. Расизм проявляется в предвзятом отношении к человеку в зависимости от его принадлежности к той или иной этнической группе. В случае колоризма отношение к человеку определяется только цветом его кожи. Независимо от внешности, цвета кожи, афроамериканцы подвергаются определённым видам дискриминации, унижению, так как они афроамериканцы. Однако светлокожий американец мексиканского происхождения может по-прежнему подвергаться расизму (несмотря на светлый оттенок кожи), а темнокожий мексиканский американец может стать жертвой расизма и колоризма одновременно. ^[85]

Большинство людей даже не осознаёт своё предпочтение к более светлым оттенкам кожи: эта доминирующая эстетика настолько глубоко укоренилась в нашей культуре, став стандартом, идеалом, который в том числе пропагандируют средства массовой информации. В интернете множество статей с практическими советами по отбеливанию кожи в домашних условиях, темнокожие девушки выкладывают видеоуроки на YouTube, где отбеливают ненавистный им тон кожи.

Женщины со светлой кожей считаются более привлекательными, соответственно, имеют больше привилегий. Идея колоризма заключается в том, что даже если девушка не белая, то её красота определяется исключительно тем, насколько она близка к тому, чтобы быть белой. Темнокожие женщины ассоциируются с мужскими чертами, чем-то отталкивающим, преступным ^[86] . Известно, что множество глянцевых журналов отбеливают тон кожи моделей, считая его слишком тёмным. В 2015 году журнал InStyle отбелил кожу актрисы Керри Вашингтон , что привело к возмущению читателей. Неоднозначную реакцию вызвало изменение цвета кожи Лил Ким в апреле 2016-го года. После отбеливания кожи и публикации снимков в социальных сетях хип-хоп исполнительница призналась, что с тёмным цветом кожи чувствовала себя недостаточно красивой, в связи с чем была обвинена интернет-пользователями в пропаганде колоризма. ^[87]

Однако ситуация меняется благодаря новым медиа : в социальных сетях проводят множество кампаний по борьбе с колоризмом. Три студентки Техасского Университета – две из Южной Азии и одна из Африки – создали фотопроект «Unfair and lovely» с целью показать красоту женщин с тёмным цветом кожи. Их кампания была поддержана в Twitter и Instagram женщинами и мужчинами с тёмным цветом кожи, которые делились своими селфи с хештегом #UnfairAndLovely.

The Colored Girl Project – проект , целью которого являлось разрушить стереотип о том, что светлая кожа красивее тёмной. Серия из 10 фотографий афроамериканских девушек с различными оттенками тёмной кожи доказывает, что все они красивы по-своему.

С другой стороны, многих светлокожих (это касается народов-меньшинств, подвергшихся в той или иной степени метизации с европейцами, например афроамерикнцев , индейцев или маори ) считают более ассимилированными и менее идентифицированными со своей расой. Более светлая кожа ставит под сомнение их этническую принадлежность, идентичность, что является для них оскорблением, той же дискриминацией. Они полностью не объединены со своей этнической группой. В этом заключается парадокс колоризма. С одной стороны, тёмная кожа ассоциируется с низким социальным статусом, отторжением. С другой, свидетельствует о чистокровности, этнической «подлинности». ^[85]