Trotsky's Train ( Train of the Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic ) - personal [1] armored train , formed by order of the Commissar of the Sea Leo Trotsky in 1918. It included a telegraph station , a library, a printing house , a radio center , a car garage, and even a small squadron. ; its staff included many military and civilian supply specialists . The train published its own newspaper, “On the Road,” which served as an agitator among Red Army men : its news stories covered both domestic and world events. . The armored train and its crew were repeatedly subjected to enemy aviation and artillery raids , and sometimes were forced to take direct part in hostilities. .
Trotsky's train | |
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Leon Trotsky (right) in the wagon of his staff train, 1920 | |
Affiliation | RSFSR |
Exploitation | 1918-1921 |
Technical details | |
Speed | 70 km / h |
Booking | differentiated |
Crew | 407 (1921) |
Armament | |
Light weapons | machine guns |
Commanders | |
Famous Commanders | S.V. Chikkolini, R. A. Peterson |
During the Civil War, the composition was visited by many well-known Bolshevik leaders , including Joseph Stalin , as well as journalists and writers. . "Train of Victory", awarded in 1919 with the Order of the Red Banner , contributed to the formation of the Red Army and the subsequent consolidation of the power of the Bolsheviks in Soviet Russia . In 1922, it was supposed to make a show of the famous train at the exhibition, as well as to hold the “Week of the train’s history”; further, in connection with the disgrace of Trotsky, the history of the train was hushed up in the USSR .
Content
Formation and history
On March 17, 1918, Leon Trotsky , who had no military education and never served in the army, but a former military correspondent both during the Balkan wars and during the First World War , entered two key military posts in the newly created Soviet Republic : became chairman of the Supreme Military Council and, at the same time, Commissar for Military Affairs [2] [3] [4] . Trotsky gave the order to form a personal train in early August 1918 - immediately after returning to Moscow from Petrograd , where he participated in the II Congress of Soviets of the Northern Region; The squad was formed on the night of August 7-8, after which Trotsky went to Sviyazhsk , to the commander-in-chief Joachim Vatsetis , who was at that time on the Eastern front of the Civil War [1] [5] [6] .
Trotsky's secretary, M. S. Glazman, left unpublished memories of the rush this train was forming [7] [8] :
... We leave for Kazansky railway station. There is a mess. The train is not composed. The cars are scattered along the tracks. No one knows what to do, where to ship things, cars, where to sit. Finally, we find places, sit down ... |
Separate difficulties were associated with the need to place people and equipment in a confined space: Rudolf Peterson , who was in charge of communication, could hardly put seven telephone operators and one stenographer in two compartments. The train was armed: machine guns were put on the roofs of the cars [9] , later they appeared on the sites of all the cars and locomotives [10] .
S.V. Ciccolini (Shikolini) , a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee , was appointed the head of the train, which was yet to “become famous” [11] [12] , but he held this position for a short time and was soon sent to Moscow. Later, Ciccolini became chairman of the Revolutionary Tribunal of the Southern Front . The next head of the train was Rudolph Peterson : in this position he spent almost the entire Civil War. Trotsky's biographers noted that Peterson, who served as a telephonist during World War I , was a man with only elementary education, but with an "organizational and military connection." In the field of view of Trotsky, he fell during his stay at the Moscow military commissariat [9] .
On August 8, 1918, when the composition of the Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic [13] first left the Moscow Kazan Station , he made thirty-six flights, only officially having passed over one hundred thousand kilometers [14] [15] , that is, he “skirted” the Earth two and a half times ball [16] [17] . At the same time, the actual distance traveled was most likely much more [18] [19] . Trotsky himself wrote [9] :
Then I did not think that I would have to spend two and a half years on this train [20] . |
The routes of the staff train [21] were held by the Bolsheviks in the strictest secret: they were made in such a way as to make it difficult for the enemy to understand exactly what part of the front of the Civil War the People's Commissar went to [9] .
Security and battle under Sviazhsky
At night, all the cars, except for the one in which the guards were stationed, were carefully locked. The train stations at which the train stopped were cleared of people by the Cheka officers shortly before the train arrived [9] . Already in 1918, the train and his team found themselves in a battle near Sviyazhsky [22] : after receiving information that one of the major Bolshevik leaders was in the city [23] , the whites under the command of General Vladimir Kappel decided to make a raid; when more than a thousand White Guards struck a sudden blow and cut off the train from the main pro-Bolshevik forces, the Red Army men panicked, threw another armored train, Free Russia, and fled. However, the detachment of the People's Commissariat of the train, along with the staff, put up stubborn resistance and waited for help [24] [25] [26] [27] .
Other incidents
During the battles near Kazan, a cavalry detachment was formed from the train team, successfully participating in the establishment of Soviet power in the city [28] . In 1919, Trotsky in his train was almost captured by the troops of Admiral Kolchak [10] . In addition, on May 16, 1919, the train of Trotsky crashed at the Nasvevich station of the Ekaterininskaya railway , but there were no casualties [29] . Trotsky himself recalled this event:
At night, I was thrown up, and I felt the horror that was felt during an earthquake: the ground is slipping from under my feet, there is no support. ... the car stood edge and froze. In the silence of the night there was only a lonely weak, mournful voice. The heavy doors of the car were twisted so that they did not open, it was impossible to get out. No one showed up, and it gave rise to alarm. Do not enemies? With a revolver in my hand, I jumped out through the window and came across a man with a lantern. It was the head of the train, who could not get to me. The carriage stood on a slope, bursting three wheels deep into an embankment and lifting three others above the rails. The back and front pads were warped. The front grille pressed to the site of the sentry [20] . |
During the years of the Civil War, opponents of the Bolsheviks repeatedly subjected the People's Commissariat to artillery and air raids [30] :
The train won the hatred of its enemies [20] . |
In February 1920, the same train was used by Trotsky for a trip to the Urals "for bread for the hungry, for fuel for the cold" - more precisely, for the purpose of the first inspection of the newly formed labor army . The Narkomov train soon derailed due to a snowstorm [31] .
Composition and structure
Initially, there were only 15 wagons in the train, but gradually it grew: auxiliary, security, and supply trains appeared, and the Commissariat itself was divided into two parts. The memoirs of contemporaries spoke of the appearance of Trotsky in one place or another "with two trains" [10] [9] [32] .
The special cars housed the secretariat of the People's Commissar, the telegraph and radio stations, a small printing house , a library, a car garage, an electric station, and a sauna. No source has yet been found in which the dining room would have been mentioned, it can be concluded from this that Trotsky and his assistants ate directly at the workplace [33] [34] (the menu was made up of a Hungarian cook [35] ). Lev Davidovich himself was housed in a separate carriage that had previously belonged to the tsarist minister of railways [19] , whom he described as comfortable, but of little use for work [28] .
Part of the train cars had armor protection [33] [36] . The composition was led immediately by two locomotives: one could not cope with the weight. When Trotsky stayed in one place, his train was used as an express train - for delivering emergency messages and the press; when Trotsky was away from the front, his train transported grain to the cities of the RSFSR, contributing to the economic mobilization of the country [37] . The presence of telegraph in the train allowed for the continuous connection of Lev Davidovich with the head of the Council of People's Commissars Vladimir Lenin , as well as with other people's commissars of Soviet Russia. The own powerful radio station, in turn, made it possible for Trotsky to receive operational data on both the international and the internal Russian situation [33] - even far from civilization, the station received Paris radio [19] [38] . In addition, the train delivered leather jackets and felt boots to the front, which were awarded to the Red Army soldiers who distinguished themselves in battles with whites [37] .
Garage, library and squadron
On the direct instructions of the People's Commissar in the train, a library was created, which was constantly replenished with a wide variety of literature, mainly of a socio-economic, general political and historical nature. The library collected the latest literature and periodicals, and also carried out individual orders of Trotsky himself: for example, in March 1919, he requested Dmitry Petrushevsky 's book “The Rise of Wat Tyler”, containing information about the peasant revolt in England in 1381 [39] . At the end of the Civil War, the library was transferred to the secretariat of the People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs [33] .
In a separate garage car there were several trucks and cars that provided the movement of Trotsky and members of the headquarters. For their refueling there was also a separate tank with fuel [5] . On these trips to the garrisons, they were accompanied by a well-armed and equipped guard, dressed in the famous black leather jackets. The Commissar’s security was ensured mainly by the Latvian “leather hundred” arrows , who had the reputation of being seasoned, enduring, cruel, brave and loyal to the Soviet regime “good fighters” [40] [41] . Lev Davidovich himself also gradually changed into black leather uniforms, which caused an ambiguous reaction from those who remembered his anti-militarism during the Great War [42] . His personal bodyguards were always close to the People's Commissar, which was important because, for example, in November 1918, the fighter Fedor Gorin, being drunk, tried to shoot the head of the train’s guard [43] [33] .
Trotsky's train also had its own aviation squad , which consisted of two aircraft [44] .
Staff
In the first months of the functioning of the fighting structure, the staff structure was not yet established in it: or rather, it often changed depending on the circumstances. But gradually a clear service hierarchy was introduced. The team of the People's Commissar, which amounted to 250 people, received high salaries by the standards of the hungry years of the Civil War: in particular, the stenographer’s salary was 1950 rubles, which was equal to the salary of the head of the traffic service on the Soviet railway [45] [33] . The train commander was equated with the division commander [44] . The train team embodied both the new regime and the future society that this regime promised to build (it was the “school of communism”) [46] . Despite this, the disappearance of various equipment (and sometimes - vegetable oil and laundry tubs) from the People's Commissariat was not uncommon; the administration also had to wage a battle against both “speculation” and “ bagpipe ”, which were carried out by the crew [47] [48] .
The central element of the train was the field headquarters of the Commissar himself, located in the former dining car ; there was also its own political department [49] . The headquarters was not stable: it included persons selected by Trotsky especially for each trip. Usually these were employees of the main directorates of the Red Army , first and foremost supplies . After examining the formations of this or that sector of the front, a meeting was held at the headquarters, which was also attended by representatives of local Bolshevik organizations [33] :
Thus, I received a picture of the situation without falsehood and embellishment [50] . |
Gradually, in the train, which was a “autonomous universe” (the self-contained world ), a personal staff of Trotsky's assistants and transcribers was formed, including engineer George Butov , Nikolai Sermuks , N. V. Nechaev, Igor Poznansky, and stenographer M. S. Glazman [51] [52] :
They worked day and night, on the train, which ... rushed along broken sleepers at a speed of seventy or more kilometers, so that the map dangling from the ceiling of the car swung like a swing [53] . |
In April 1921, the People's Commissar managed to carry out a special decree of the Labor and Defense Council to provide all his assistants, “not more than 300 people”, with a front-line Red Army ration , quite impressive by the standards of peacetime [25] . Among the 407 people employed in 80 different positions (as of January 1921), there were both a radio operator, who wrote about himself as a Jew and a “proletarian intellectual”, and a young illiterate peasant who was doing laundry for employees. The train had both a board of honor and a friendly court that imposed penalties, among other things, on “unhygienic habits” - such as spitting on the floor, debris from sunflower seeds and occasional washing [54] [55] . In Moscow, the staff of the train was allocated a house near the station, in which they created a commune; in addition, the team members had their own club and collective farm [56] .
Communists constituted a minority among the employees: from dozens to hundreds of people attended party meetings. The party cell was formally a democratic organization, but the practice was somewhat different: there was a case when the chairman of the presidium, by his own decision, removed the names of two Bolsheviks from the list of members; during the party cleansing of 1919, the presidency was replaced by a decision from above, and ordinary members only voted in favor of this change; during the uprising in Kronstadt, the presidium created the Emergency Party Troika - in order to restore “comradely discipline”. The train had its own party school as well as literacy eradication courses. With the beginning of the transition to the NEP, four people were expelled from the party. Many of those with whom Trotsky worked and to whom he wrote a farewell letter on July 15, 1924 in connection with demobilization, in the late 1920s, had the same fate as the Soviet party oppositionists, who lived to the time of the Great Terror were shot [54 ] [57] [58] .
Typography "On the Road"
On the train’s route, Trotsky conducted an active (“tireless” [59] ) literary activity [60] , the results of which were re-published in 1922-1924 in five volumes [61] . Along with orders of a military-operational and organizational nature (about 12,000 [6] ), agitation- political documents were among his papers. The most important articles, orders and informational materials were published by Trotsky in the newspaper “On the Road”, which was printed directly on the train [62] [63] [64] - in its own printing house [32] , which occupied two cars [6] . The first issue was released on September 6, 1918; full sets of the newspaper have not been preserved, but it is known that from September 1918 to September 1920, 233 issues [65] were published, that is, about ten issues per month. The circulation of the newspaper was about four thousand copies. It was distributed in military units, agitation points, military hospitals, as well as among the local population. Many materials were reprinted by local newspapers and magazines of Soviet Russia [54] [66] , serving not only agitation, but also educational purposes [65] . In particular, one of the articles was devoted to the treatment and treatment of combat wounds [67] . Sometimes the products of a mobile printing shop even forged white agitators [68] .
The main, though not the only author of newspaper materials, was Trotsky himself. Commissar biographers Yuri Felshtinsky and Georgy Chernyavsky argued that his small articles were, as a rule, “lightweight propaganda material,” but, since they came from the highest military person, they acquired the character of instructions and directives [54] [66] . The materials that the commissar himself unnecessarily praised Trotsky himself tried to prevent the newspaper [69] [70] - in particular, he wrote:
Editorial No. 18 contains reviews at my address. I find it extremely inconvenient that this kind of laudatory reviews be printed in the newspaper published on our train. In general, I ask for a personal moment, if possible, to eliminate [66] . |
The periodical was originally two-way (in 1919 the volume of its numbers grew to four pages) and somewhat smaller in format than the usual newspapers of the time [71] . The basic information was presented in such a way as to be easy to read and easy to read, which was important for those who only began to read or read with difficulty. The news materials covered both world events and events inside the country and on the fronts. For the convenience of the reader, they were grouped under the headings: "On the front line of the revolution", "Red Front", "Telegrams", "Operational summaries", "Soviet power", "Abroad", "The world revolution began", "Comments", “In the camp of the enemy,” “In the counter-revolutionary camp,” and so on [72] .
Among the materials prepared for the newspaper by the people's commissar himself, his biographers Yu. G. Felshtinsky and GI Chernyavsky distinguish two. On January 7, 1919, at the Kursk railway station, Trotsky wrote an article entitled “It's time to stop!”, Expressing hope for an early conclusion of operations on the Southern Front. Soon after the appearance of this article, General Anton Denikin launched an offensive against Moscow. On April 12, while in Nizhny Novgorod , Lev Davidovich wrote the article “The Struggle for the Volga ”, according to Felshtinsky and Chernyavsky, “imbued with a no less pompous official optimism” - this time in connection with actions against Kolchak [73] :
The Volga should remain our, Soviet river. |
In the memoirs of Trotsky, there is a mention that the communist cell of the train also produced its own newspaper, “On Guard”. By the beginning of the 21st century, this publication could not be found, although the archives contained a model of its first issue [74] .
In addition to the newspaper “On the Road”, the train team also distributed others, according to the historian Dmitry Volkogonov , “instruments of spiritual influence” [75] : for example, during the nine days of September 1920, during the trip of the People's Commissar to the Western (Polish) Front , Nearly 150,000 copies of printed materials were distributed to the Red Army fighters, including Lenin ’s pamphlet “Left-Wing Communism ” Children's Illness, ” Bukharin’s and Preobrazhensky ’s Pamphlet“ The Alphabet of Communism ”, Trotsky’s book“ Terrorism and Communism ” [76] [77] .
Famous passengers
In the train, Trotsky - who reminded Professor Robert Argenbright "the spacecraft exploring uncharted worlds" [52] - many party leaders and Bolshevik propagandists (about three thousand people) made their trips to the front [78] . Trotsky paid special attention to the fact that among them were journalists and writers. Their task was to contribute to the victory over the enemies of Soviet power, and to highlight the personal role of the People's Commissar in the victories of the Red Army [76] . When Trotsky traveled to the front under him, there were “a photographer and a cinema” who recorded important episodes of the struggle “against the yoke of capital” [79] .
Together with Trotsky, Adolph Ioffe , French journalist Jacques Sadoul , the communist poet Demian Bedian , journalist Georgi Ustinov , artist Peter Kiselis traveled to numerous fronts of the Civil War. Poetess Larisa Reisner devoted her poem “Sviyazhsk” to the train [67] . The participants of these trips noted the “pathos of the distance”, which was strictly observed by the People's Commissar, who emphasized their special position [76] :
Recently, an adversary of Bolshevism, [Trotsky] forced respect for himself and reckon with every word, but remained an alien element ... he spoke very authoritatively, and as his successes developed on the front, even something defiant appeared in his behavior [80] . |
During the Tsaritsyn conflict, the train of people's commissar visited Joseph Stalin [81] , who also spent most of the civil war en route and also had his own train, albeit without cooks and a printing press [6] .
Train Routes
Incomplete list of visited cities, including only the main points [82] :
1918
- Eastern Front : Sviyazhsk , Kazan
- Southern Front : Kozlov , Liski , Bobrov , Voronezh , Tambov Province
1919
- Southern Front: Kursk , Valuyki , Balashov
- Petrograd Front : Yamburg
- Eastern Front: Samara , Penza , Simbirsk , Kazan, Vologda , Vyatka
- Southern Front: Kozlov, Kupyansk , Raisin , Boguchar , Kharkov , Lozova , Kremenchug , Mirgorod , Konotop , Tula , Orel
- Western Front : Petrograd
1920
- Eastern Front: Samara, Yekaterinburg
- Western Front: Smolensk , Zhlobin , Mogilyov
- Southern Front: Kharkov
Value and scores
In his memoirs, Trotsky noted that almost all of his military activities were associated with this command [83] train. In turn, the squad was inseparable from the life of the Red Army being created - he tied the front and rear, "resolved urgent issues on the spot, enlightened, called upon, supplied, punished and rewarded." As a result, Trotsky’s train, according to a number of historians, became one of the symbols of the Civil War [9] [84] .
Both negative and positive evaluations of Trotsky’s trips to the front line can be found in the literature. Thus, as early as the 1930s, Karl Danishevsky , a member of the Revolutionary Military Council, argued that the presence of the Trotsky train at the front caused discontent among local commanders, since it created a situation of diarchy and “confused their plans”. Comrade Commissar’s train was honored by the future emigrant Semyon Lieberman : in his memoirs published in the USA , he called the squad “the red Noah’s Ark ”, because it was attended by experts in all sectors of the national economy of the RSFSR . According to Lieberman, Trotsky himself called the train "the train of victory" [9] .
Thanks largely to the Narkomov train, Trotsky was able to take an active part in the formation of the Red Army and its first victories [85] . As a result, he “firmly established his position in the highest Bolshevik party-state hierarchy”, which determined the policy of Soviet Russia and the prospects for the world revolution [86] [76] [87] . Trotsky's biographer, Robert Service , examined in detail and analyzed the structure of the train: the historian saw in him not just the people's commissar's vehicle, but a full-fledged (and with that “unique” [88] ) military-political organization [89] - the “restless” symbol ( eng. Restless ) the nature of Trotsky himself, his physical and mental energy [90] [91] .
Rewards and Memories
The activity of the train staff on the fronts of the Civil War deserved several awards: in particular, on January 1, 1919, the crew received the honorary banner, and in November 1919 he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner . The resolution of the Revolutionary Military Council No. 309 of November 17, 1919 stated that the award was made "for the battles near Kazan in 1918, near Petrograd and elsewhere on the front lines of the Soviet Republic" [92] [93] . In total, during the years of the Civil War, the train crew lost 15 people killed and as many missing without taking part in thirteen battles [94] : in 1919, by the end of the defense of Petrograd, there were three killed and nine wounded [91] .
In 1922, as part of the jubilee exhibition of the Red Army, a show of the famous train was arranged, and a “Train History Week” was held [95] : the exposition included maps with train routes in different years and diagrams showing the team’s activities in the military, campaigning and economic spheres; literature exhibited in the typography of the composition was also on display [96] . After the disgraces and the expulsion of Trotsky outside the USSR, the history of the train, which once bore the “glorious” name of the Commissariat of War [91] , was hushed up, like all the activities of a revolutionary during the Civil War [13] . At the beginning of the XXI century, the materials of the “On the Road” newspaper were one of the sources of information about the Civil War and the construction of the military organization of the Soviet state [97] .
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [90].
- ↑ Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [82].
- ↑ Heyman, 1976 , pp. 71-72, 93-94.
- ↑ Erickson, 2001 , p. 28
- ↑ 1 2 Broué, 1988 , p. 252.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Kotkin, 2014 , p. 327.
- ↑ Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [90] - [91].
- ↑ RGVA, F. 4 , L. 115-116.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [91].
- ↑ 1 2 3 Brunovsky, 1993 , T. XIX, p. 36
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 226.
- ↑ Ulam, 2009 , p. 443.
- ↑ 1 2 Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 27.
- ↑ RGVA, F. 63 , L. 147.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 28
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 234.
- ↑ Deutscher, 2006 , p. 422.
- ↑ Winsbury, 1975 , p. 524.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Broué, 1988 , p. 253.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Trotsky, 1930 , Chapter XXXIV. A train.
- ↑ Footman, 1961 , p. 145.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 229-230.
- ↑ Erickson, 2001 , p. 55.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , pp. 37–38.
- ↑ 1 2 Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [292].
- ↑ Gagkuev, 2007 , p. 63.
- ↑ McNamara, 2016 , p. [308].
- ↑ 1 2 Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 37.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 260-261.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 282.
- ↑ Deutscher, 2006 , p. 500-501.
- ↑ 1 2 Service, 2009 , p. 230.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [92].
- ↑ Chamberlin, 1935 , pp. 38–39.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , p. 49.
- ↑ Heyman, 1977 , p. 36
- ↑ 1 2 Argenbright, 1998 , p. 47
- ↑ Daly, Trofimov, 2009 , pp. 246–248.
- ↑ RGVA, F. 33987 , L. 28.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 229.
- ↑ Winsbury, 1975 , p. 526.
- ↑ Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [106].
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 271-272.
- ↑ 1 2 Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 269.
- ↑ Golovnikova, Volkodayev, 1990 , p. 61.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , pp. 47-49.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 272.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , pp. 52, 55—56.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 280.
- ↑ Trotsky, 1930 , Vol. 2, p. 146.
- ↑ Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [92] - [93].
- ↑ 1 2 Argenbright, 1998 , p. 48.
- ↑ Trotsky, 1930 , Vol. 2, p. 149.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [93].
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , pp. 49-53.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , pp. 57–58.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , pp. 49-53, 59-60.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1996 , pp. 1-10.
- Ites Stites, 1988 , p. 43.
- ↑ Heyman, 1977 , p. 34
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 276.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 250
- ↑ Deutscher, 2006 , p. 500
- ↑ Chernenko, 2012 , p. 45-47.
- ↑ 1 2 Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 32.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Chernenko, 2012 , p. 45-46.
- ↑ 1 2 Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 34
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 277-278.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 278.
- ↑ Chernenko, 2012 , p. 46-47.
- ↑ Chernenko, 2012 , p. 46.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 33.
- ↑ Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [93] - [94].
- ↑ Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [94], [293].
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 279.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Felshtinsky, Chernyavsky, 2012 , p. [94].
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , pp. 34-35.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 36
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 253.
- ↑ Lieberman, 1944 , p. 123-126.
- ↑ Broué, 1988 , p. 261.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , pp. 27-28.
- ↑ Lepage, 2017 , p. 98
- ↑ Kotkin, 2014 , p. 328.
- ↑ Broué, 1988 , p. 254.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 280–281.
- ↑ Heyman, 1975 , pp. 407–412.
- ↑ Argenbright, 1998 , p. 45.
- ↑ Service, 2009 , pp. 230–231.
- ↑ Chamberlin, 1935 , p. 38
- ↑ 1 2 3 Argenbright, 1998 , p. 46.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 38
- ↑ Bullock, 2013 , pp. 14–15.
- ↑ Smele, 2015 , pp. 1181.
- ↑ Volkogonov, 1998 , p. 268.
- ↑ Tarkhova, 1992 , p. 39
- ↑ Chernenko, 2012 , p. 47
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