Akkadian language

The first traces of the Akkadian language are found in cuneiform inscriptions in the Sumerian language (the ancient non-Semitic language of Ancient Mesopotamia , extinct by the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC; cuneiform writing was invented precisely by the Sumerians) dating back to about 3,000 BC. e. These are personal names and words borrowed by Sumerians from the Akkadian language. With the advent of the first Akkadian state and its subsequent expansion under Tsar Sargon and his successors (c. 2341-2160 BC), the Old Akkadian language (this concept applies to the Akkadian language of the 3rd millennium BC) began to be spoken and write on a vast territory from Akkad (the area of ​​modern Baghdad ) in the south to Assyria (the area of ​​modern Mosul ) in the north. In addition, at the same time, the Old Akkadian language began to gradually spread throughout the territory of Sumer in the south of Mesopotamia and along the territory of Elam , the eastern neighbor of Akkadians. The subsequent revival of Sumerian domination, which lasted about two centuries, threatened to put an end to Akkadian expansion for some time, however, new invasions of the Semitic peoples were approx. 2000 BC e. led to the complete crowding out of the Sumerian language by Akkadian, which became official throughout Mesopotamia.

The vast gains that led to the formation of a huge state at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, and the ensuing revival of trade relations, spread throughout the whole of East Asia the influence of the Babylonian culture and the Babylonian-Assyrian language, which becomes the official language of international relations; in the XV century BC e. even the Egyptian pharaoh corresponded with his closest neighbors, small Palestinian vassals. Together with the Babylonian cultural concepts, legislation, mythology, etc., the peoples of the Middle East borrow a whole series of words from the Babylonian-Assyrian language.

Since the XIV century BC. e. , Aramaic language penetrates into Mesopotamia (see also Aramaic literature ), brought by a new wave of Semitic nomads. Gradually, this language becomes the spoken language of the entire population, so that in the IX century BC. e. Babylonian-Assyrian language is spoken almost exclusively by the ruling class, and starting from the VI century BC. e., that is, with the founding of the New Babylonian state with the Chaldean dynasty , the Babylonian-Assyrian language remains only as a written language. Under the Persians, it was the official language of the eastern half of the state, and individual monuments in the Babylonian-Assyrian language are found until the middle of the III century BC. e.

The Eblaite language reveals a significant resemblance to Akkadian and is sometimes regarded as its oldest dialect of the pre-argon period .

After 2000 BC e. in Akkadian there are two distinct dialects: Babylonian, which was spoken in the south - in Babylonia , and Assyrian (not to be confused with the modern Assyrian language , belonging to another group of Semitic languages), which was spoken in the north - in Assyria ; For each of these dialects, several historical stages of development are distinguished. Because of this separation, the Akkadian language is often called "Assyro-Babylonian" or "Babylonian-Assyrian." The Assyrian dialect of Akkadian is probably a direct descendant of the Old Akkadian language (in any case, it is closer to the Old Akkadian than the Babylonian), while in the Babylonian there are a number of features that cannot be brought back to the Old Akkadian and which go back to other, more ancient and still poorly recognized dialects.

The Babylonian dialect had a much greater cultural significance than the Assyrian. Since the middle of the II millennium BC. e. Babylonian was widely used as a kind of lingua franca throughout the Middle East and turned into the language of correspondence between the royal courts of the Hittites , Hurrites , Aramaeans , Canaanites and Egyptians . The Bogazkoy Archive ( Asia Minor ) and the Tell el Amarna Archive (Egypt) provide the best evidence of the widespread Babylonian dialect of Akkadian. Even the inhabitants of Assyria, who previously used exclusively their own dialect, from the middle of the II millennium began to use the Babylonian dialect - first in their historical inscriptions, and subsequently in written texts of a general state character. As a result, by the end of the Assyrian period, all Assyrian texts were written in the Babylonian dialect, with the exception of numerous personal letters and business records, where the local dialect continued to be used. The more archaic character of the Assyrian dialect is evident when compared with the Babylonian one; in particular, the so-called weak consonants remain unobtrusive even in late Assyrian, while in the most ancient Babylonian texts they appear already in a constricted form.

The following dialects of Akkadian are distinguished:

• Old Akkadian dialect (XXIV — XX centuries BC)
  • Babylonian
    • Old Babylonian dialect (XX — XVI centuries BC)
    • Middle Babylonian dialect (XVI – XII centuries BC)
    • The Babylonian dialect (XII — X centuries BC)
    • New Babylonian dialect (10th-7th centuries BC)
    • Late Babylonian dialect (VII century - beginning of A.D.)
  • Assyrian dialect
    • Old Assyrian dialect (XX — XVI centuries BC)
    • Central Assyrian dialect (XVI — XII centuries BC)
    • New Assyrian dialect (10th-7th centuries BC)

As you can see, only the Babylonian dialect of Akkadian has a continuous written history for more than two millennia. Around the end of the Old Babylonian period and the beginning of Middle Babylonian a special literary language was formed - the so-called standard Babylonian. It is in standard Babylonian that the vast majority of poems, epics, and historical documents are written; they were used in diplomatic correspondence from Egypt to the modern territories of Turkey and India .

Akkadian writing was syllabic-logographic. The writing system, writing material, and wedge-shaped graphics of the Semites of Akkad were borrowed from the Sumerians. Each sign served to indicate one or more concepts that were conveyed in speech by one or more words. Thus, each character could have several readings dating back to the Sumerian language, to which Akkadian readings were added, and each Sumerian word or expression (the so-called Sumerogram) could be read both in Sumerian and Akkadian ^[1] :

To indicate a specific category of concept, as in Sumerian writing, determinatives were used. The determinatives are not readable and are placed in front of the corresponding cuneiform sign or after it (in more rare cases), for example: Á = ahum “hand, side”, Á ^mušen = erûm “eagle” ^[2] . Also, in Akkadian, each character serves to transmit several sound combinations, that is, it can be used as a syllabogram. The syllabogram transmits one vowel sound or a combination of one or two consonants with vowels (i.e. combinations of the form CV, VC, CVC, CVCV).

Homonymy and polyphony, originally inherent in Sumerian cuneiform writing , increased significantly in Akkadian writing. New sound values ​​of syllabograms are developed on the basis of Sumerian and Akkadian readings. A consequence of the increase in the number of readings of syllabograms was the creation by Akkadians of phonetic complements. A phonetic complement is a sign that was placed before or after the syllabogram to clarify the choice of its syllabic meaning.

It is also characteristic of Akkadian writing that not all consonant and vocal oppositions of the language are regularly reflected in cuneiform writing. So, for example, the spelling of Hammurabi's laws does not distinguish between / bu / and / pu / ( bu = / bu / and bu = / pu /), / ki / and / qi / ( ki = / ki / and ki = / qi /) The final deaf, voiced and emphatic consonants in closed syllables did not differ. In the field of vocalism, phonemes / i / and / e / are sporadically distinguished, which in the Old Babylonian dialect are stably contrasted only at / t /, / š /, / m /, / n / at the beginning of the syllable and at / l /, / š /, / n / at its end.

The basic rules of Akkadian spelling ^[3] .

• A syllable with a beginning and an outcome in a consonant can be written either by means of one syllabram ( šar , dan ), or by a sequence of two syllabograms ( ša - ar , da - an ). Reading in both cases is identical, but records of the first type are little used in Old Babylonian spelling.
• A syllable with a long vowel is usually written as a syllable with a short (i.e. ba = / ba / and ba = / bā /) and rarely with the addition of a sign for the corresponding vowel.
• A syllable with an extra long vowel is recorded with the addition of a character for the corresponding vowel ( mu - u = / mû /).
• To transmit sound sequences of the form / (C) VCV (C) /, the character combinations (C) VC + V (C) are not used, for example: / para / is written as pa - ra , not par - a . Records of the second type - the so-called "broken records" - are used to indicate a guttural explosion in front of a vowel: / par / - / ʔa /.
• To transmit the sonant / w / in all combinations with the vowel (/ wa /, / wu /, / wi /, / aw /, / uw /, / iw /), one pi sign is used. Also, only one character is used to convey the initial syllable / j / ( ia = / ja /, / ju /, / ji /) and the final syllable / ḫ / ( aḫ = / aḫ /, / uḫ /, / iḫ /).
• In Akkadian cuneiform writing, as a rule, intervals between words and word dividers were not used.
• Fractional word wrap from one line to another was not allowed.

Akkadian is a nominative and inflective language in its grammatical structure.

Phonetics

Phonemic Composition

In the field of vocalism, short vowel phonemes (/ a /, / i /, / u /, / e /), long ones (/ ā /, / ī /, / ū /, / ē /) and extra-long (/ â /, / î /, / û /, / ê /), arising as a result of contraction of two vowels ^[4] . It is also suggested that in Akkadian there was a short vague vowel [ə].

Akkadian consonatism, as well as other Semitic languages, is characterized by the presence of three groups of consonants: voiced-deaf-emphatic.

Syllable and stress

The following types of syllables are distinguished within the framework of traditional assyiological transcription:

• short - open with a short vowel ( i-dum “hand, side”, da-mum “blood”);
• long - open with a long vowel or closed with a short vowel ( ā-lum “city”, qā-tum “hand”, kas-pum “silver”);
• extra-long - open with an extra-long vowel or closed, containing a long or extra-long vowel ( ê-rum “stay awake”, ê- lum “dominate”, šīm-tum “fate”, têr-tum “indication”).

Compared with other archaic Semitic languages, the syllabic composition of the Akkadian language is more diverse due to its characteristic fall of laryngals and numerous acquisitions of combinations with laryngals and half-vowels. Thus, the beginning of a syllable with a vowel sound and the presence in closed syllables of long and extra long vowels are allowed. However, it should be borne in mind that, according to some authors, undisguised syllables should be interpreted as starting with the laryngeal bow (ʔVC). Syllables with an outcome and beginning on a group of consonants are not allowed, clusters of consonants are broken by the insertion or postposition of a short vowel.

Vocabulary

Most Akkadian words have a three-consonant root, but words with a two- and four-consonant root are also found. Word formation occurs by prefixing, suffixing, reduplication and altering the vowel, while compounding is quite rare. Akkadian vocabulary is characterized by a large number of synonyms and polysemantic words. The oldest and most numerous borrowings in Akkadian are from Sumerian. In peripheral dialects, words of Hurrian and Elamite origin are found. From the 7th century BC e. there are borrowings from the Aramaic, and from the end of the VI century. BC e. - from the Persian language. Borrowings from Akkadian are found in many Semitic languages, through which they entered the Greek, Latin and modern European languages.

Morphology

The following parts of speech can be distinguished in Akkadian: pronoun, noun, adjective, numeral, adverb, verb, preposition, particle, union and interjection.

Pronoun

In Akkadian, the following main classes of pronouns are distinguished: personal (independent and suffixive), demonstrative , interrogative, possessive, indefinite and generalizing relative pronouns, relative pronoun ša .

Personal pronouns have grammatical categories of gender (masculine and feminine), numbers (singular and plural) and case (independent - nominative, genitive / accusative, dative; suffix - genitive, accusative, dative).

Noun and adjective

The name in Akkadian is characterized by grammatical categories of gender, number, case and condition. Nouns and adjectives distinguish two kinds - masculine and feminine. The masculine gender of names is unmarked, the feminine indicator is allomorph - t -, joined to consonantal consonantal stems, and - at - (in Vav. Also - et -), joined to basics ending in a consonant cluster or doubled consonant: mār-t -um “daughter”, šarr-at-um “queen”, kalb-at-um “dog”, erṣ-et-um “earth”. However, many feminine nouns do not have a corresponding indicator: ummum “mother”, atānum “donkey”, inum “eye”, idum “hand”, etc.

The name distinguishes three numbers: singular (unmarked), plural and dual . The dual number of nouns is formed by endings - an (in the nominative) and - in <* ajn (in the indirect case), which are attached directly to the base of the name in m. and to the indicator - t - / - at - in g. R. The plural is expressed by one of four indicators:

• The endings - ū / - ī are typical for masculine nouns and require coordination by masculine gender (with the exception of the noun pluralia tantum . N niš-ū люди people ’: sapḫ-ātum niš-ū янные people scattered around the country’). The longitude - ū / - ī in the letter, as a rule, was omitted and constantly noted only for the words awīlum “man, citizen” and ṣuḫārum “youth, servant” in the form a-wi-lu-ú / a-wi-li-e and ṣú-ḫā-ru-ú / ṣú-ḫā-ri-e .
• Endings - ānu / - āni masculine nouns. The indicated forms are traditionally described in opposition to the forms on - ū / - ī . It is assumed that the ending - ū / - ī denoted plurality in general, and - ānu / - āni the plurality of individual units, or a limited and specific group of several objects or persons: il-ū 'gods in general, pantheon' vs. il-ānu “(main) gods”, šarr-ū “kings (in general)” versus šarr-ānu “famous, previously mentioned group of kings”. Already in Old Babylonian, such oppositions are very rare.
• The endings - ūtum / - ūtim are regularly used with adjectives and participles consistent with nouns m. plural: nom. šarr-ū damq-ūtum “good kings”, indirectly n. šarr-ī damq-ūtim .
• The endings - ātum / - ātim are attached directly to the base of nouns and adjectives. R., while the indicator g. R. - (a / e) t - drops: šarr-at-um damiq-t-um “the good queen”, pl.h. - šarr-ātum damq-ātum , šattum (< šan-t-um ) “year”, pl. h. - šan-ātum , ummum rabī-t-um “the great mother”, pl. h. - umm-ātum rabi-ātum .

В аккадском языке выделяют три основных падежа: номинатив (окончание - um ), генитив (окончание - im ) и аккузатив (окончание - am ). Трёхпадежное склонение свойственно единственному числу. Во множественном числе различаются только прямой (номинатив) и косвенный падежи. Полная парадигма склонения существительных и прилагательных в старовавилонском диалекте имеет вид (на примере слов šarrum «царь» и dannum «сильный, могучий»):

Как и во многих семитских языках, при образовании некоторых типов синтаксических связей имена принимают формы, отличные от словарной, которые традиционно называются состояниями (статусами). В аккадском языке принято выделять склоняемое ( status rectus ), сопряжённое ( status constructus ), предместоименное ( status pronominalis ) и абсолютное ( status absolutus ) состояния ^[5] .

В склоняемом состоянии имя имеет падежную флексию ( u/i/a ), а также мимацию/нунацию (кроме форм м. р. множественного числа), полностью подчиняясь описанной выше парадигме склонения. Имя в статусе ректусе не управляет существительным в родительном падеже и не определяется бессоюзным относительным придаточным предложением, например: šarrum dannum «царь могучий», bītim šanîm «до́ма другого».

Имя в сопряжённом состоянии теряет мимацию/нунацию, а в формах ед. ч и мн. ч. с окончаниями - ānu , - ūtum , - ātum , как правило, теряет и падежную флексию. Имя в двойственном и множественном числе на - ū / - ī сохраняет склонение. Форма имени единственного числа в сопряжённом состоянии зависит от типа основы данного имени.

В предместоименном состоянии имена с основой, оканчивающейся на гласный, сохраняют полное склонение. Имена с основой, оканчивающейся на согласный, сохраняют падежные окончания только во множественном и двойственном числе, в единственном числе падежную флексию без мимации сохраняет генетив, который противопостовляется чистой основе форм номинатива и аккузатива: им.-вин. п. bēlšu «его господин», род. п. bēlīšu «его господина», им.-вин. п. šumšu «его имя», род. п. šumīšu «его имени».

Имя в абсолютном состоянии, как правило, теряет падежные окончания в формах единственного числа мужского и женского рода (формы двойственного числа и множественного числа м. р не установлены). В status absolutus употреблялись количественные числительные, существительные счёта и цены: ḫamšat šiqil kaspum «пять сиклей серебра».

Verb

Глагольные основы различаются по типу корневых согласных. Своё первичное значение глагольные основы изменяют по системе пород. В аккадском языке 4 основных системы пород: G (основная), D (с удвоением 2-го согл. — значение интенсива), Š (с приставкой š - — значение каузатива), N (с приставкой n - — значение пассива), в каждой из которых образуются производные породы: Gt , Gtn , Dt , Dtn и т. д. Спрягаемые формы глагола: презент, претерит, перфект, статив. Неспрягаемые: инфинитив, причастие. Наклонения: императив, субъюнктив, вентив, прекатив, прохибитив.

Синтаксис

В зависимости от выражения сказуемого в аккадском языке могло быть два типа предложений: глагольное и именное. Порядок слов глагольного предложения: подлежащее — прямое дополнение — косвенное дополнение — сказуемое. При сказуемом, выраженном каузативной породой глагола, может быть два прямых дополнения. Порядок слов именного предложения: сказуемое — подлежащее, оба они стоят в именительном падеже, наличие между ними связки не обязательно. Распространены также сложноподчинённые предложения с разными типами придаточных.

Порядок слов в аккадском нетипичен для семитских языков: SOV (подлежащее — прямое дополнение — сказуемое), что объясняют влиянием шумерского языка ^[6] .

• Шумерский язык
• Энума элиш
• Эпос о Гильгамеше

Общие работы

• Липин Л. А. Аккадский язык. М., 1964.
• Дьяконов И. М. Языки древней Передней Азии. М., 1967. С. 263—338.
• Дьяконов И. М. Аккадский язык // в кн. Афразийские языки. Кн. I. Семитские языки. М., 1991. С. 70-109.
• Reiner E. Linguistic Analysis of Akkadian. The Hague, 1996.
• Каплан Г. Х. Очерк грамматики аккадского языка. СПб, 2006.
• Коган Л. Е., Лёзов C. В. Аккадский язык // Языки мира: Семитские языки. Аккадский язык. Северозападносемитские языки. — М. , 2009.

Основные грамматики

• Ungnad A. Grammatik des Akkadischen. Neubearbeitung durch Matouš 5. Aufl. München, 1969.
• von Soden W. Grundriß der Akkadischen Grammatik. 3. Aufl. Rom, 1995. (GAG)
• Buccellati G. Structural Grammar of Babylonian. Wiesbaden, 1996.
• Huehnergard J. A Grammar of Akkadian. Atlanta, 1997.(3rd ed. 2011)
• Caplice R. Introduction to Akkadian. 4th ed. Rome, 2002.

Словари

• The Assyrian Dictionary of University of Chicago . Chicago, 1956-2011 (CAD)
• Липин Л. А. Аккадский (вавилоно-ассирийский) язык. Vol. II. Словарь. Л., 1957.
• von Soden W. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Bd. I—III. Wiesbaden, 1958—1981. (AHw)
• Black JG, George A., Postgate N. A Concise Dictionary of Accadian. Wiesbaden, 2000.

Хрестоматии

• Липин Л. А. Аккадский (вавилоно-ассирийский) язык. Vol. I. Хрестоматия с таблицами знаков. Л., 1957.
• Borger R. Babylonisch-assyrische Lesestücke. Teil I—II.3., revidierte Auflage. Roma, 2006.

• Учебник аккадского языка (незаконченный)
• Клинопись на примере отрывка из «Энума элиш» (англ.)
• Афанасьева В. К. Аккадская (Вавилоно-ассирийская) литература.
• Akkadian-English-French Online Dictionary (англ.)
• Ignace J. Gelb, Benno Landsberger, A. Leo Oppenheim, Erica Reiner: The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (англ.) . Чикаго : Чикагский университет (1964—2011). Дата обращения 4 сентября 2017.
• The Recordings of Babylonian and Assyrian Poetry and Literature (англ.) . University of London. Department of History, School of History, Religions & Philosophies. — Реконструкция звучания аккадского языка на примере памятников письменности. Дата обращения 31 марта 2018.