“Geoponics” ( Greek Γεωπονικά ) is the Byzantine agricultural encyclopedia of the 10th century, probably representing extracts from the unreserved work of Cassian Bass Scholastic (6th century) [1] . His work, in turn, was to a large extent a compilation of excerpts from the works of earlier agronomic writers (known collectively as “ geoponics ”), primarily, “Collections of agricultural occupations” by Vindaniy Anatoly from Berit and “Georgik” Didim from Alexandria [2 ] .
Written in Greek , the treatise consists of 20 books containing numerous instructions on growing plants, raising animals, and fishing. Topics related to the weather , organization and management of the household, pest control are discussed. The calendar of agricultural work is included.
Authorship and creation time
The authorship of Geoponics is not precisely defined. As a rule, attributed to Cassian Bass on the basis of initiation in the beginning of books 7-9, in which the author addresses his son Bass. In addition, the name of Cassian Bass as the author of “Geoponics” is indicated in one of the codes (Marcianus 524) of this treatise [3] .
Doubts about the authorship of Cassian is that in two chapters of book 5 he is mentioned as the author from whom the text was taken. According to the Soviet historian of Byzantium, Elena Lipschitz, “Geoponics” should be regarded as an anonymous work, for the reason that the compiler himself indicates that his work is not an original work, but a compilation [4] .
Nothing is known about Cassian Bass himself beyond what can be learned from Geoponics, since no other surviving text mentions him [3] .
Problems are also created by determining the time of occurrence of Geoponics. In the surviving codes, the introduction contains a dedication letter glorifying Emperor Constantine VII (to whom the authorship of this treatise was attributed to the editions of the 16th and 17th centuries), which may indicate the period of rule of this ruler, that is, the 10th century. However, Cassian Bass still has a typically Roman name, and his nickname (Scholastic) ceased to be used in Byzantium in the 9th century. In addition, it follows from the text of the treatise that its author lived near the city of Maratonima, which, according to surviving sources, existed from the 4th to the 6th centuries. Therefore, "Geoponics", presumably, arose in the VI century, in the period of late antiquity. Subsequently, for more than three centuries, the work was forgotten, as it is not mentioned by any author. It probably remained in one of the libraries in Constantinople , where it was discovered in the middle of the 10th century and popularized again, after adding a panegyric initiation to the emperor (apparently replacing the original dedication to the author’s son), as well as minor editing. Presumably, this happened around 950, at the end of the reign of Constantine VII [3] .
Contents
"Geoponics" consists of 20 books, divided into chapters (of which a total of 621). Books have a different volume and number of chapters. Each book begins with a brief introduction describing its subject and containing a list of sections [5] . Obviously, the author sought to give the fullest possible picture of the various branches of agriculture - tillage, viticulture, olive growing, gardening, gardening, poultry farming, beekeeping, animal husbandry, fishing, etc. [4]
The introduction, added in the X century, written in a high and rhetorical style, praises the virtues and deeds of Constantine VII. It also addresses the topic of Geoponics, emphasizing the ruler's concern for peasants. Presumably, this emperor ordered to collect information and instructions from the works of ancient agronomic writers as a whole, the result of which is this work [5] .
The first book is about the seasons, as well as the effect of weather and moon phases on the crop. The lunar cycle was associated with the female element, which means fertility and harvest; thus, according to the beliefs of the time, he had a significant influence on the crop. The influence of the astrological tradition of the East and popular beliefs is noticeable in the book (for example, in order to prevent hail and lightning strikes it was necessary to bury a hippopotamus in the middle of the field), but the results of the first truly scientific observations are also presented [5] .
The second book discusses issues related to the main for the economy of that time, the cultivation of cereals, as well as legumes . In addition, it contains instructions on the organization and management of the economy. The book is modeled on earlier agronomic literature; it consistently considers: a portrait of the ideal landowner, organization of labor on the farm, the choice of a place for it (including the topic of water supply), its construction, the stages of grain production (from choosing seeds to storing grain), growing legumes, weed destruction, issues related to farm management (including the qualities that a manager must possess), division and labor standards, as well as health issues and needs of agricultural workers [5] .
The third book is a calendar of agricultural work by month [5] .
Books four through eight contain instructions on growing grapes and producing wine . Grapes were the plant most significant for the culture and economy of Greco-Roman civilization, therefore it is not surprising that more than 1/4 of the treatise is devoted to it, which gives an overview of the entire ancient tradition on this subject. The fourth book is devoted to grape varieties, the fifth - about suitable soil for growing, planting and pruning, as well as diseases of grapes, the sixth - about the collection of grapes and the storage of grape must. The next two books, the seventh and eighth , are devoted to the types of wines (including healing wines) and how to store them [5] .
The ninth book is devoted to another plant essential for ancient culture - the olive tree - and the production of olive oil , which indicates a high level of knowledge on this subject [5] .
The tenth and eleventh books are devoted to the garden ( hortus ), which in ancient tradition was the place of growing fruit trees and ornamental plants . The first of them contains topics related to gardening, tree species and their cultivation. The species considered are mainly plants of Asia and Africa, little popular or not cultivated in Greece and Rome; Much attention is paid to the date palm , mastic tree and citron . The following book describes decorative plants that can be used to weave garlands and wreaths, flowers ( rose , lily , daffodil , violet ), plants and seasonings that are used in the kitchen ( laurel , myrtle , rosemary , marjoram ). When describing individual plants associated myths are given [5] .
The twelfth book contains information about vegetable plants , mainly those that were grown in the vicinity of Constantinople. Many of the names are not found in any other preserved manuscripts, probably they were used only locally [5] .
The thirteenth book is advice on controlling and controlling pests (insects and rodents). Many of them are magical in nature [5] .
The fourteenth book begins with topics related to animal breeding . It is dedicated to domestic birds, including pigeons and peacocks , as well as wild birds that were hunted [5] .
The fifteenth book deals mainly with beekeeping , although it begins with a long section of a magical and symbolic nature about sympathies and antipathies between animals, plants and minerals [5] .
The following books contain instructions on breeding large animals, including instructions on veterinary medicine - both rational, based on observation and experience, and having the character of magical folk methods of treatment. The theme of the sixteenth book is, first of all, horses (which were not used then either for agricultural work or in teams), two chapters are devoted to donkeys and camels . The theme of the seventeenth book is cattle, that is, cows and oxen used as street and pack animals; on the eighteenth , sheep and goats : the former are considered mainly as a source of wool, the latter as dairy animals. This book also contains a chapter on cheese production. Book number nineteen contains information about dogs ( shepherd and guard) and pigs , as well as about the storage of meat. Two short chapters talk about hares and deer [5] .
The last, twentieth book is devoted to the fishing industry . In the first, rather short part, general information is given about fish, including the structure of joints , followed by a series of recipes for lures . The last chapter is devoted to the production of garum , a very popular fish sauce in ancient Rome [5] . This is the most accurately preserved recipe for this sauce [6] .
Sources and their authors
The main sources for the treatise were “A Collection of Agricultural Activities” by Vindaniy Anatoly from Berit and “Georgiki” Didim from Alexandria. Vindania's work was created in the 4th century and was based on the writings of earlier authors. Consisted of 12 volumes; described in Miriobiblion Photius . It included all branches of agriculture along with animal breeding, and therefore is considered the main source of "Geoponics". It is not known whether Cassian was based solely on this work or whether he borrowed the text from other authors, having direct access to works currently unknown [7] .
The “Georgians” of Didim, who lived at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century, totaled 15 books [2] , as the encyclopedia of the Court reports. It is not known whether they were a compilation of the work of other writers or the completely own work of Didim, inspired by other books. In Geoponics, references to Didim are given in 100 chapters. The themes taken from him often have a clear connection with magic and folklore, and also have the influence of Christian culture (for example, Homer’s verses and texts from the Old Testament are combined in spells) [7] .
In addition, the names of 28 other authors are mentioned in the headings of the chapters of “Geoponics” [7] .
See also
- Geoponics
Notes
- ↑ Dictionary of Antiquity / J. Irmsher, R. Jone. - M .: Progress, 1989 .-- S. 128.
- ↑ 1 2 Oktawiusz Jurewicz. Historia literatury bizantyńskiej. Zarys. - II poprawione. - Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 2007 .-- S. 156. - ISBN 978-83-04-04920-8 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 Kassianus Bassus. Wstęp // Geoponika. Bizantyńska encyklopedia rolnicza. - Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2012. - S. 7–11. - ISBN 978-83-231-2966-0 .
- ↑ 1 2 Lipschitz, 1960 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Mikołajczyk, Wstęp. W: Geoponika , s. 11-17.
- ↑ Apicjusz. Uwagi do przekładu // O sztuce kulinarnej. - Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2012 .-- S. 15. - ISBN 978-83-231-0926-6 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 Mikołajczyk, Wstęp. W: Geoponika , s. 17-36.
Editions
- Geoponics. Byzantine Agricultural Encyclopedia of the X century . - L .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960.
Literature
- E.E. Lipschitz. "Geoponics" and their author // Geoponics. - L. , 1960.
- Kassianus Bassus. Wstęp // Geoponika. Bizantyńska encyklopedia rolnicza. - Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, 2012. - S. 7–45. - ISBN 978-83-231-2966-0 . (polish)