Kitchenware

The history of kitchen utensils before the development of pottery is small due to limited archaeological evidence. It was mainly cooking utensils and variously crafted sticks (which served as cutlery). The earliest pottery vessels were discovered in Särendun Cave, Jiangxi, China. Pottery may have been used as cookware by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef said: "When you look at these pots, you see that they were on fire." Among the first cooking methods believed to be used by Stone Age civilizations were improvements for basic roasting.

Great difficulty was the way to boil water. People who do not have access to natural sources of hot water, heated stones were placed in a vessel filled with water. In many places, the shells of turtles or large mollusks served as materials for waterproof cooking vessels. The bamboo pipes, sealed with clay at the end, provided usable utensils in Asia, while the residents of the Tehuacan Valley began to carve large stone bowls that had been permanently installed in the hearth since 7000 BC.

According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, Native American culinary baskets used by Zuñi are designed from mesh shells woven specifically. He said that in 1881 he witnessed the use of baskets for cooking. “Clay baskets for firing will be filled with charcoal and the product to be fried. When the clay so burnt is separated from the basket, it becomes suitable for use as a clay frying pan. ” This indicates steady progress, from the use of woven pumpkin casings to waterproof cooking baskets and ceramic vessels. Unlike many other cultures, Native Americans used and continue to use the heat source inside the dishes.

The development of ceramics made it possible to create refractory cooking vessels of various shapes and sizes. Coating pottery with a certain type of vegetable resin and later glazes turned all porous containers into waterproof containers. Then, clay kitchenware was hung over the fire, or even placed on a low fire or charcoal layer. Ceramics, however, do not conduct heat well, so food in ceramic pots should be cooked at relatively low temperatures and for long periods of time. However, most ceramic pots will crack if used on a stove, and they are only for the oven.

The development of metalworking skills from bronze and iron made it possible to make kitchen utensils from metal, although the adoption of new utensils was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal utensils, there were few new developments in the utensils: the standard medieval kitchen used a cauldron and a shallow clay pan for most culinary tasks, and the skewer was used for frying.

By the 17th century, the presence of several pans, trays, a kettle and several pots, as well as various hooks and pot stands, became commonplace in Western cuisine. Copper or bronze vessels were common in Asia and Europe, while iron pots were common in American colonies. Improvements in metallurgy in the 19th and 20th centuries made it possible to economically produce pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel, and aluminum.

The author of the book “Of the culinary utensils of the ancients” Isabella Beaton noted that the kitchen utensils of different civilizations are surprisingly similar ^[1] .

Archaeologists and historians have studied kitchen utensils that were used in past centuries. Evidence found that in the middle of the first millennium BC. er Jewish families had stone measuring bowls, wide- necked vessels for water meyḥam , boilers without a kederah lid, stewpan with lids ilpas , water tanks yorah and kumkum , deep and shallow frying pans teganon , glass dish iskutla , ceramic bowl tamḥui , bowl for keara bread, kiton decanter for cold water, which was diluted with wine, as well as a lagin jug for wine ^[2] .

Inventory records of kitchen utensils made in London in the 14th century have been preserved, in particular, court archives contain inventories of property made by the coroner. According to these documents, few people owned kitchen utensils at all; only seven inventories found utensils. The most common item was a copper cauldron, which was estimated at three shillings as part of the property of one killer arrested in 1339 ^[3] . In the second half of the 19th century, in the state of Minnesota, a certain John North, according to similar records, owned a very good rolling pin and a pudding shovel made by himself, and a Civil War veteran had a bread knife forged from a bayonet. A family of Swedish immigrants brought with them cast silver knives, forks and spoons, and their copper and brass dishes hung on the walls were polished to a mirror shine ^[4] .

In the XIX century, scientific and technological progress was marked by the appearance of many devices that save human labor, including in the kitchen. Maria Parloa in the book “Cook Book and Marketing Guide listed a minimum” listed a set of 139 kitchen items, without which a modern kitchen could not be considered properly equipped ^[5] .

The expansion of the range of kitchen items available for sale can be traced to the lists of recommended equipment contained in books on home economics. In 1828, Francis Parkes recommended a small set of essentials ^[6] . In 1858, Elizabeth Putnam in the cookbook for young housewives, “Mrs Putnam's Receipt Book and Young Housekeeper's Assistant” suggested that her readers already have “the usual amount of dishes”, in addition to which she advised to get the following set ^[7] :

Copper pans pans conveniently shaped with lids of various sizes - from 3 to 6, a pan for soup with a flat bottom, a vertical grid, steel baking trays instead of tin, a griddle , a double boiler, a tin coffee pot or a coffee maker, tin cans for storing coffee and tea, an upholstered drawer for bread, another for sweet pastries (for this you could select a drawer upholstered in zinc or tin in a linen closet), a bread knife, a board for cutting bread, a jar with a lid for slices of bread, a jar for bread crumbs, a tray for knives, a tray for spoons, copper or tin m cally different sizes, thick tin bowl for kneading bread, a large clay bowl for whipping cakes, stone vessel for yeast; stone vessel for broth, meat saw, cleaver ; iron and wooden spoons; wire sieve for sifting flour; small hair sieve, bread board, meat board, iron wood mortar , rolling pin, etc. ^[8]

In the cookbook of 1880 by list of objects was 93 items ^[7] , in the illustrated edition of 1882, the description of kitchen utensils took 20 pages. in the cookbook of 1886 ^[9] included in the list of 200 items ^[10] .

According to the famous chef V.V. Pokhlebkin, the minimal set of kitchen utensils of a modern housewife totals fifty objects, and the ideal set is about a hundred ^[11] . Among the necessary items, Pokhlebkin named 6-8 different pots, large and small stewpan, up to eight pans, five baking sheets and sheets for baking, colander, sieve, sieve, 2 strainers, 2 funnels, 4 knives, 2 scissors and a sharpener for them, a kettle for boiling water and two teapots, a coffee pot or coffee maker, 3-4 mortars with pestles, a wooden crush, a spatula, a wooden hammer, wooden spoons, 3 cutting boards, 3 different rolling pins, kitchen spoons, a meat grinder, a manual or electric device for whipping, garlic squeezer, grater nkovku, can opener, corkscrew. The list of utensils “for fans to cook” includes 16 more lines, including a cauldron for pilaf, dumplings, baking dishes.

Kitchen utensils can be made from different materials. In ancient times, dishes were made from copper ^[12] . By the beginning of the 20th century, iron and earthenware began to replace copper dishes ^[13]. In the 20th century, aluminum became popular ^[14] . The material from which the utensil is made affects its consumer properties and can affect the taste and quality of food. In Russia, the basic requirements for materials are determined by No. 123-12.328-7 approved by the USSR Ministry of Health on 07-08-79, with subsequent additions to RTM 27-72-15-82, "Procedure for the Use of Metals, Synthetic and Other Materials in Contact with Food and Media" ^[15] . Cookware made from a combination of materials has the best properties for cooking ^[12] .

Metals

Copper

Copper utensils appeared about 10 thousand years ago ^[12] . Copper has good thermal conductivity , provides fast and uniform heating. Copper utensils are durable and look attractive. However, it is relatively heavy and requires thorough cleaning of oxides formed on its surface and is not suitable for acidic products ^[16] . In copper dishes, whites are easier to beat, green vegetables become brighter. The constant use of food cooked in copper utensils can be harmful to health. To protect products from contact with the surface of copper, tin coating (tinning) is used, and today it is steel ^[12] .

The properties characteristic of copper utensils are also possessed by brass utensils ^[17] .

Iron

Iron is more susceptible to corrosion than tinned copper. At the same time, cast-iron utensils practically do not corrode if not cleaned to a shine and allowed to form a protective layer of polymerized fat on its surface. To do this, the dishes are lubricated with a layer of vegetable oil and heated for a sufficiently long time ^[12] . It is desirable to use iron utensils for frying or baking, that is, cooking without the participation of water, which is the main culprit in corrosion ^[13] . Iron dishes should be thoroughly wiped and dried after washing. Failure to observe this rule may result in devices containing parts of iron that may break. If necessary, store iron utensils and tools for a long time, it is advised to cover them with a mixture of fat with salt or paraffin ^[16] .

Iron utensils are great for cooking at high temperatures, easy to care for and clean well and relatively durable, keep heat well enough. Its disadvantage is susceptibility to rust ^[16] . Iron utensils can degrade the color of products ^[12] .

Enamelware

Enameling, that is, coating a metal with a layer of molten glass, began to be used at the beginning of the 19th century. Initially, cast-iron utensils were covered with enamel, then iron and steel. Enamel eliminates food contact with the metal surface, such dishes are resistant to acids, salts and alkalis. At the same time, the enamel layer on the cookware is sufficiently thin so as not to impair the heat-conducting properties of the metal and not to prevent thermal expansion ^[12] . Food in enameled dishes often burns, so it is usually used for cooking first courses and cooking vegetables. Enameled dishes are not suitable for boiling milk and cooking milk porridge ^[17] . Enameled dishes are strong enough, but require careful handling so that chips do not form on the enamel, and when the heated dishes are immersed in cold water, the enamel may crack. Dishes with chipped enamel are not suitable for cooking ^{[12] [17]} .

Steel

Steel dishes - an alloy of iron with carbon with the addition of chromium and nickel - do not rust, unlike iron dishes. Protection against rust is provided by a thick film of chromium oxide formed on the surface of steel utensils. However, steel utensils are more expensive than iron and cast iron and conduct heat worse. To improve thermal conductivity, the bottom of steel dishes is equipped with inserts of copper or aluminum (bimetallic dishes) ^[12] . Do not use acidic or excessively alkaline products to wash stainless steel dishes. To preserve the shine, the outer walls of the dishes must be wiped off immediately with a soft towel ^[17] .

Cookware is made of steel with non-stick (most often Teflon) coating. It is better to use such dishes at low and medium temperatures and protect them from scratches: to work with them you need to use a wooden spoon or spatula ^[17] .

Aluminum

Aluminum is used for the production of kitchen utensils only from the first half of the 20th century ^[12] . The advantage of aluminum over other materials provides good thermal conductivity (an order of magnitude higher than that of steel), chemical inertness at high temperatures, low toxicity; aluminum oxides formed on the surface of dishes are transparent and do not change the color of food ^[14] . Aluminum cookware is lightweight and durable ^[12] . The disadvantages include the incompatibility of aluminum with acids that destroy the surface protective layer on the walls of dishes, as well as with alkaline detergents ^[16] . White and light products in aluminum dishes may darken ^[12] . It is believed that it is better not to use aluminum utensils for cooking, it is only permissible to boil water in it ^[17] .

In the European Union, the requirements for kitchen utensils made of aluminum are determined by the standards EN 601 ( Aluminum and aluminum alloys. Castings. Chemical composition of castings used in contact with food products. ) And EN 602 (Aluminum and aluminum alloys. Wrought products. Chemical composition of semi-finished products. Products used for the manufacture of products intended for use in contact with food.). Standards establish the limiting values ​​of alloying elements and impurities, such as iron, silicon, chromium, manganese, nickel, zinc, copper, titanium and others ^[14] . In Russia, the requirements for aluminum used for the manufacture of dishes are determined by the standards GOST 17151-81, GOST R 51162-98, GOST 1583-93, GOST 4784, GOST 11069-2001 ^[15] .

Ceramics

Glazed Pottery, Earthenware, and Porcelain

Ceramic dishes are fragile and do not tolerate significant temperature changes, which are often needed in cooking. The glaze on which ceramic dishes are coated may contain poisonous lead , which is why in some countries it is forbidden to use ceramics for cooking and storing acidic foods.

In addition to exposure to , ceramics need to be treated with the same care as glass, since the glaze is easily chipped. Otherwise, glazed products are durable, easy to clean and do not interact with acid, although it cannot be used to work with strong alkalis ^[16] .

Ceramics, earthenware and porcelain can be used simultaneously for cooking and serving dishes. In addition, this allows you to not wash the excess dishes, some recipes include serving the dishes on the table in the dishes in which it was prepared. These materials are quite durable and are great for slow heat treatment of food, primarily baking in an oven or oven. Moreover, for cooking using direct heat sources, for example, on an open fire, such dishes are not suitable ^[16] . Due to its low thermal conductivity, ceramics are excellent for microwave ovens ^[12] .

Clay

Unglazed earthenware is unparalleled "breathable" natural material. Dishes cooked in earthenware have a specific aroma and exquisite taste. Fish, meat and mushroom dishes, cereals turn out to be especially tasty if cooked in clay dishes. Due to the unique ability of clay to regulate temperature and humidity, clay pots are used to store food ^[18] . Milk can be stored in fired clay dishes for four days, the onions and garlic do not rot in it, the jam is not sugared, the cereals are not affected by the bug. Tea and coffee in earthenware remain hot for a long time. At the same time, unglazed ceramics do not enter into chemical reactions with food, it contains toxic substances, does not emit them when heated, and is absolutely safe when cooking dishes in it. There are several types of ceramic dishes: terracotta, ceramics made of red and black clay.

Pottery is best suited for slow cooking ^[12] , can be used in electric and microwave ovens and even in wood stoves. Do not put earthenware in a very preheated (up to 220-250) oven; this can cause it to crack. It is not suitable for cooking on an open fire and does not withstand a significant temperature difference. Due to the porous surface of the clay, dishes in pots are especially juicy and soft. Coffee made in earthenware is very aromatic. Pottery needs careful care, it can not be rubbed with metal washcloths. Store pottery in a dry place.

Glass

Heat-resistant glass kitchen utensils can be used in microwave ovens and ovens; glassware and glass-ceramic stoves should be used with caution. Dishes are fragile and require careful handling. Food prepared in a glass dish has an excellent taste ^[17] . Tanks for cold products and liquids are made of glass, glass dishes can be used when serving dishes on the table.

Plastic

Thermoplastic cookware is used in the temperature range from –40 to 150 ° C, in it you can freeze and store food, cook in the microwave. Plastic dishes are lightweight and ergonomic ^[17] .