List of volcanoes in Indonesia

There are several main types of forms of volcanoes, differing in such indicators as the composition of the erupted lava , type of volcanic eruption , the number of craters , etc. ^[3] . Such species include a stratovolcano , which is a towering symmetrical cone, a shield volcano - a gentle volcano formed as a result of outpouring of liquid lava, a caldera - an extensive hollow formed as a result of the collapse of a volcanic structure after partial devastation of the magma chamber, and others. Now active volcanoes can form on the site of older volcanic formations, occurring, for example, as a side cone . It is impossible to accurately determine the active volcano or is extinct. This status is based on historical records of its eruptions, radiocarbon analysis, or geothermal activity . So, in 2010, the Sinabung volcano woke up, which had previously been inactive for hundreds of years. Its eruption is associated with the hypothesis that a powerful earthquake in December 2004 could affect volcanic activity in the region ^[4] .

The first inaccurate mention of the activity of Indonesian volcanoes was noted in Chinese records of the III century, they are associated with the activities of Krakatau . In addition, there are unconfirmed data on about another 20 eruptions in this region, mainly Kelud and Krakatau volcanoes ^[1] . The first eruptions documented by Europeans were the eruptions of the Gunungapi Vetar and Api volcanoes in 1512 ^[1] . Some of the Indonesian volcanoes were notable for their catastrophic eruptions: the Krakatau eruptions in 1883 and Tambora in 1815 became one of the deadliest in human history ^[5] , and the Toba eruption some 74,000 years ago is considered the strongest known in the Quaternary ^[6] . The most active volcanoes in the region are Kelud and Merapi , located on the island of Java . Since 1000, Kelud has erupted more than 30 times ^[7] , while Merapi more than 80 times ^[8] . International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's bowels called Merapi one of the Volcanoes of the decade due to its high activity ^[9] .

More than 75% of Indonesians live less than 100 km from the nearest volcano, according to this indicator, the country leads in the world ^[1] . The volcanological service of Indonesia, engaged in monitoring and research of volcanoes, was established in 1920. Currently, this organization, now known as the Center for Volcanology and Geological Threat Reduction, includes 76 volcanological observatories that continuously monitor 66 volcanoes and also evacuate people before eruptions ^[1] .

This list is compiled on the basis of the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program database, which contains information on volcanoes exhibiting one or another type of activity, including geothermal activity, over the past 10,000 years ^[10] . The list of volcanoes of the world of the University of Oregon additional sources , which includes information from the US Geological Survey ^[11] , data from the World Organization of Volcanological Observatories (WOVO) and the database of the Global Volcanic Risk Identification and Analysis Project (VOGRIPA) ^{[12] [13]} .

Sumatra

In the geography of Sumatra , the Barisan mountain range prevails, which stretches from north to south for almost 1700 km ^[14] . The ridge is formed by the movement of the Indo-Australian Plate towards the Eurasian Plate with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm per year ^[15] . This tectonic movement is responsible for the volcanic activity of the island and major earthquakes, including the 2004 earthquake , occurring in the Sumatra region ^{[15] [16] [17]} .

Only one of the volcanoes in this group is not on Sumatra — the Vekh volcanic island at the northwestern tip of Sumatra arose as a result of the partial destruction of the older volcanic center and flooding by the sea ^[14] . Milestone was included in the list based on its geothermal activity ^[18] . Sumatra has one of the largest volcanic calderas in the world - the Toba supervolcano caldera, filled with the lake of the same name . It was formed as a result of a huge eruption about 74,000 years ago, which received the maximum rating on the VEI scale of 8 points ^[19] . In addition, Sumatra is the highest volcano in Indonesia - Kerinci ^[20] .

Sunda Strait and Java

In the Sunda Strait , separating the islands of Sumatra and Java , is the volcanic island of Krakatau . In 1883, a powerful eruption occurred here, destroying two-thirds of the island and forming a large underwater caldera. The Krakatau explosion was heard on the island of Rodriguez near Mauritius ^[54] . In 1928, from the center of the caldera, a new volcanic cone rose above the water, named Anak Krakatau (“child of Krakatau”), which by 1930 had become a permanent island. Since its inception, Anak Krakatau has erupted more than 40 times ^[55] .

Java, despite its relatively small area compared to Sumatra, has a higher concentration of volcanoes. The most active of them are Semeru , Kelud and Merapi . The Semeru volcano has been continuously erupting since 1967 ^[56] , and Merapi, because of the frequency of its eruptions, was named one of the Volcanoes of the decade . Another distinctive volcano is Ijen , inside the crater of which there is a unique lake, which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir with a hydrogen index of less than 0.3 ^[57] .

Sunda Islands

Small Sunda Islands are an archipelago of numerous islands located on the edge of the Australian shelf . The largest among them are, from west to east, Bali , Lombok , Sumbawa , Flores , Sumba and the island of Timor . Some volcanoes in that area form islands - for example, Api volcano on Sangeang island.

In 1815, a colossal eruption of Tambora volcano occurred on Sumbawa island, which became the most powerful eruption in the history of mankind ^[100] .

Sea Gang

To the south of the Moluccas is the Banda archipelago located in the sea ​​of ​​the same name . Island volcanoes predominate in this area, but there are also underwater ones .

Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands

The central part of Sulawesi Island is represented by high non-volcanic mountainous terrain. Active volcanoes are located in the northern part of the island and stretch north to the Sangihe Islands, which border the Philippines .

Halmahera

Halmacher Island is located in the northern part of the Moluccan archipelago . In the 16th century, the islands of the archipelago became the center of the spice trade, so there have been historical records of local volcanic eruptions since then ^[1] .