Topics in Italian Renaissance painting

In one small work, The Flagellation of Christ by Piero della Francesca (right) shows various elements of the painting technique of the Italian Renaissance. Pierrot's skill in portraying perspective and light is striking. Architectural elements include a mosaic floor, which is becoming more and more the center of action. The interior of the painting is illuminated by an invisible light source. Its exact location can be mathematically accurately determined by analyzing the direction the shadow falls on the ceilings. Three standing figures cast shadows from a daylight. Pierrot’s knowledge of perspective and light is immediately visible.

The religious theme of the picture, associated with the scourging of Jesus Christ by the Romans, is presented in the canonical episode of the Passion of Christ. The New Testament event takes place in an open gallery on the middle plane of the picture. In the foreground on the right are three figures, clearly indifferent to what is happening. The scourging scene is illuminated on the right, and, possibly, the “contemporary” landscape is on the left.

Renaissance painting differed from the painting of the late Middle Ages by its careful observation of nature, interest in human anatomy, the application of scientific principles in using the point of view and direction of light incidence.

Linear Perspective

The paintings in the gallery show the development of a linear perspective, the visual distortion of the proportions and shapes of buildings and urban landscapes.

• At Giotto , the buildings are scenery open to viewers on one side.
• Paolo Ucccello's fresco depicting the urban landscape gives the impression of a depth of space.
• The painting of the Holy Trinity Masaccio was painted with carefully calculated mathematical proportions, in which the architect probably helped the architect Brunelleschi .
• Fra Angelico uses the image of a small loggia to create an intimate space.
• Gentile Bellini depicted a wide space on Piazza San Marco in Venice , into which retreating figures are inserted to display perspectives.
• Leonardo da Vinci made detailed images of the classic ruins inscribed in the background of the Adoration of the Magi .
• Domenico Ghirlandaio created an extremely complex and large-scale composition on three levels, including clipping ramps protruding from the wall. Elements of the landscape, such as the church on the right, are seen excerpts through other structures.
• Rafael in the painting Fire in Borgo shows buildings located in a small area, which are the background for the events shown and reflect the perspective.

Landscape

The image in the landscape paintings was animated using a linear perspective and the inclusion of detailed landscapes influenced by paintings from early 15th century Dutch painting . This influence arose through the awareness of the need to reflect the perspectives and paths of light.

• Giotto depicts several large stones to give the impression of a mountainous area.
• Paolo Uccello created a detailed and surreal backdrop for showing small scenes.
• In the Carpaccio painting The position of the body of Christ devastated rocky landscape echoes the tragedy of the scene.
• The landscape of Mantegna has a sculptural, three-dimensional quality, talking about real physical space. Details of the rock, its layers and faults, suggest the author's knowledge in the field of geology, the properties of red limestone , which is widespread in the regions of Northern Italy.
• Antonello da Messina creates a gloomy scene of the crucifixion , as a contrast to the calm countryside that goes to the horizon.
• Giovanni Bellini displayed a detailed landscape with pastoral scenes between the front and back slopes of the mountain. The picture shows many levels of terrain, which makes it similar to the paintings of Ghirlandaio (above).
• Perugino in the film The Adoration of the Magi displayed the familiar hilly landscape of Umbria .
• Leonardo da Vinci, shows a theatrical use of perspective with steep mountainsides around Lake Lago di Garda at the foot of the Alps of Northern Italy.

Light

Light and shadow in painting exist in two forms. Hue is simply light and intermediate areas of images graded from white to black. Tonal composition is a very important feature of some paintings. Chiaroscuro is a model of visible surfaces in a picture of light and shadow. Despite the fact that the tone was an important feature of the paintings of the medieval period, there were no chiaroscuros. Chiaroscuro became an increasingly important element of paintings for artists of the 15th century, translating the image into an apparent three-dimensional space.

• The Annunciation to the Shepherds Taddeo Gaddy is the first known large painting depicting a nightly event. The inner light source is focused on the image of an angel.
• In the paintings of the heavenly patron of all artists Fra Angelico, the daylight coming from the window of the monastery softly illuminates the figures and the surrounding cell.
• In the painting Dream of Emperor Piero della Francesca, the night scene, an illuminated angel, is interested. The artist applies his scientific knowledge about the distribution of light. The tonal pattern creates the main element in the composition of the picture.
• In Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, Giovanni Bellini uses the effect of the setting sun on a cloudy evening to create an atmosphere of tension and impending tragedy.
• In the ceremonial portrait of Domenico Veneziano, chiaroscuros are used to model the form. The painting contrasts with a pale face, background, and dark clothes with a patterned bodice.
• Botticelli uses chiaroscuro to model a person’s face and details of his clothes. Light and shadows on the edge of the window set the angle of incidence of light.
• The alleged author of the portrait of the early 16th century is Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio , Mariotto Albertinelli or Giuliano Bujardini . The picture includes many lighting effects. The shape is modeled by light and shadow, the setting sun gives a dramatic effect, enhanced by the landscape. The tonal pattern creates dark clothes and white linen.
• In Leonardo da Vinci's painting, John the Baptist , painting elements, including the eyes and mouth of a person, are masked in the shade, creating an atmosphere of uncertainty and mystery.

Anatomy

I rely heavily on observations; knowledge of anatomy was acquired by Leonardo da Vinci by studying 30 corpses. Leonardo taught students the need for close observation of life, urged to make drawings of a living model an integral part of painting.

• The theme of the Cimabue Crucifix painting, badly damaged by the 1966 flood, with a curving body and a bowed head, was common in medieval art. Anatomy is highly stylized in accordance with the traditional formula.
• Giotto abandoned the traditional formula and was engaged in observing forms.
• Masaccio's figure of Christ is shortened when viewed from below. The upper part of the body is tense, Christ seems to breathe with effort.
• Giovanni Bellini does not try to show the cruelty of the crucifixion, but creates the impression of death.
• In the painting by Piero della Francesca Baptism, the figure of Jesus is painted with simplicity and the absence of sharply defined muscles, which indicates its naturalness.
• The figure of Jesus in the painting, which is a joint work of Verrocchio and the young Leonardo, was probably designed by Verrocchio. The contours retain gothic non-linearity. Most of the torso, however, is believed to have been written by Leonardo, a good knowledge of human anatomy is shown here.
• Leonardo da Vinci's painting “Saint Jerome” shows the results of a detailed study of the shoulder girdle.
• Michelangelo used human anatomy to express the effect. He was known for his abilities to create expressive poses, which was imitated by other artists and sculptors.

Realism

A new tendency has arisen in Italian fine art: close attention to the surrounding nature, people, and public relations. There was a style - realism. Widespread in Byzantine painting, the methods of depicting symbolic gestures were replaced by displaying human emotions, revealing the meaning of the picture.

• In the painting Resurrection , Giotto shows sleeping soldiers with sleepy faces hidden under helmets, which emphasizes the ease of poses.
• Andrea del Castaño portrayed condottier Pippo Spano at full height with a determined expression on his face. Feet and hand with a sword protrude beyond the drawn niche.
• Filippo Lippi in his early work very naturally depicted a group of children crowding around the Virgin Mary, with innocent curiosity looking at the audience. Of these, one child has Down syndrome .
• Masaccio portrayed fear and grief on the faces of Adam and Eve expelled from paradise.
• Antonello da Messina drew several versions of Essay Nomo , the tormented Christ, as he was introduced to the people by the Roman ruler. Such paintings usually show Christ in a tragic but also heroic role, minimizing the depiction of suffering. Antonello portrayed amazingly realistic emotions.
• In the painting Lamentation of the Dead Christ, the artist Mantegna portrayed the body of Jesus with a bold angle, as if the viewer was standing nearby.
• In this detail of a larger picture, Mantegna portrayed a small child sucking a finger in holey slippers.
• In this portrait, Giorgione very naturally depicted an old woman, her untidy hair, an open mouth with crooked teeth attract attention.

Picture Composition

The most important component of the art form that gives the work unity and integrity is the composition of the painting. The compositional solution is associated with the distribution of objects and figures in space, the ratio of sizes, light and shadow, color spots, etc.

• The composition of the painting by Giotto combines three separate storylines against the backdrop of a dramatic scene. Judas betrays Jesus by kissing him. The kiss chosen by Judas as a symbol for the warriors is a traditional greeting from the Jews ^[1] . The high priest tries to seize him. Peter cuts the slave's ear and takes a step forward to lay his hands on Jesus. In the foreground are five figures surrounding Jesus so that only his head is visible. With the artist's skillful arrangement of flowers and gestures, Jesus' face becomes the focal point of the picture.
• In the painting Death of Adam , Piero della Francesca laid the dying patriarch surrounded by his family members. Its significance for history is emphasized by the arches of figures formed around it and the diagonals of the hands that lead to its head.
• The Resurrection of Theophilus' son is a surprisingly integral piece, given that it was started by Masaccio , misunderstood, spoiled, and ultimately completed by the artist Filippino Lippi . Masaccio painted the central part of the picture.
• In Pollaiolo’s painting, crossbow archers in the foreground form the basis of its compositional structure. In the created large triangular composition, there is also a background.
• Painting by Botticelli Mars and Venus has the composition of the letter W. Lovers are in a relaxed state. The composition is supported by four small deer.
• Michelangelo's mastery of the composition of the Burial drawing has inspired many artists over the centuries. In this panel, the vertical figure of Christ is a heavy burden for those who are trying to carry it.
• At first glance, Signorelli in Autumn of the Damned depicts a terrifying pile of bodies, but the skillful placement of figures along disjoint lines give the picture a wave-like movement. The composition consists of a large number of individual scenes.
• In the painting The Battle of Ostia Raphael, the assistant is design. The foreground of the painting consists of two intersecting arched shapes. The beating of captives in the foreground is adjacent to captives kneeling in front of the pope. The image of the pope rises above the action, the magnificent headdress of the soldiers is a visual step to the pope. Two figures on the edges of the picture create some tension, one technique pushes the edge of the picture, and the other pulls it up.

Fresco cycles

Mural cycles represent the most time-consuming and large-scale work that Italian Renaissance artists performed for temples, palaces or public buildings. They painted the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi at the end of the medieval period, followed by the work of Giotto from the time of the Proto-Renaissance, the work of Gozzoli Benozzo commissioned by the Medici in the Chapel of the Magi . The highest achievement in this area is the work of Michelangelo commissioned by Pope Julius II in the Sistine Chapel .

• Giotto painted the large Skrovegni chapel in Padua with scenes from the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ. Renouncing medieval traditions, he set a new standard for naturalistic painting.
• Two large murals of Allegories of the good and bad government of Lorenzetti show the life of citizens, emphasize the need for public order.
• In contrast, the frescoes of the Triumph cycle of the Church of Andrea Bonauti show the role of the church in society. The painting includes a view of the Florence Cathedral.
• Masaccio and Masolino da Panicale worked in the chapel of Brancacci , completing the cycle of frescoes Life of St. Peter . The cycle is known for the realistic innovations of Masaccio, the elegant style of Masolino.
• The cycle of frescoes by Piero della Francesca in the Basilica of San Francesco in Arezzo is connected with the Legend of the True Cross. The frescoes show the artist's achievements in the field of light and linear perspective.
• The frescoes of Benozzo Gozzoli in the Chapel of the Magi of the Palazzo Medici Riccardi are painted in the Gothic style with an intricate and richly ornamental depiction of the Medici (in the procession of the Young King on the eastern wall of the Chapel, the artist depicted himself in a red cap with the inscription Opus Benotii) and three wise men.
• The complex cycle of works of the House of Este Palazzo Scifanoia in Ferrara, partially executed by the artist Francesco del Cossa, is bizarre in his descriptions of the classic deities and zodiac signs that are included in scenes from the life of the family.
• The frescoes by Andrea Mantegna also show family life with elements of realism, images of rooms, stairs. The upper part of the fireplace forms the floor for the figures depicted.
• While historians are trying to identify the faces of Masaccio, Masolino, and possibly Donatello, Domenico Ghirlandaio in the chapel of the Sassetti chapel in the chapel of Brancacci, there are no attempts to mask their models. Each fresco in its religious cycle has two sets of figures: those who tell stories, and those who listen to them. The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary scene depicts Florentine women who came in as if to congratulate the Virgin Mary.
• In the cycle Punishment of the rebellious Levites by the artist Sandro Botticelli , episodes from the life of Moses related to the life of Christ are shown. The cycle was created in the 1480s to decorate the Sistine Chapel by artists Botticelli, Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli. Artists worked harmoniously, according to a pre-designed scheme.
• Michelangelo’s mural on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which he performed alone in five years, shows scenes from Genesis, the figures of the prophets and ancestors of Christ. Murals were destined to become one of the most famous works of art.
• Rafael Santi with his assistants jointly painted the papal chambers. The mural of the Athenian school of Raphael shows famous people of that time, including Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Bramante, as well as images of the artists themselves, represented as philosophers of ancient Athens ^[2] . The frescoes created by Raphael are allegorical images of human activity: “Athenian school” - philosophy, “Disputation” - theology, “Wisdom, moderation and strength” - justice, “Parnassus” - poetry. In this fresco cycle, Raphael showed four reasons on which, in his opinion, human society should rest: reason (philosophy, science), kindness and love (religion), beauty (art), justice (justice).

Altar paintings

Altars occupied a central place in the temple. In the West, the altar painting was also often called the altar - a pictorial image or composition of pictorial, sculptural and architectural elements placed above the throne. In Italy, the central part of the altar, as a rule, depicted the Madonna or patron saint, and on the wings - various saints, scenes from whose lives are placed in the lower part.

• The two Madonnas in the altars of Cimabue and Duccio di Buoninsenya demonstrate different approaches to a topic that has been formalized and constrained by existing traditions. Although the positions of the Madonna and Child in the two paintings are very similar, the artists depicted the Madonna in different ways. The Cimabue Throne is depicted with perspective. The surrounding angels, their faces, wings and halo, are arranged to form the rich halo of the Madonna. The child sits royally, his legs hanging at the same angle as his mother.
• In the painting by Duccio di Buoninsenia Madonna Rucellai, measuring 4.5 meters in height, the throne is installed diagonally. The child also sits diagonally to the mother. The position of the kneeling angels is depicted simplistically, their clothes have a variety of beautiful color combinations. On the Madonna’s robes, a curved gold edging defines the shape and contours, revitalizing the entire composition.
• The Madonna portrayed by Giotto is currently located in the same room of the Uffizi as the paintings of Cimabue and Duccio. Giotto's use of certain currents of vision, observation of nature, allows him to compare his work with the work of other artists. Despite the fact that his painting is located on the altar, it deviates from the existing traditions of writing. The image of the Madonna is three-dimensional. The niche pictured enhances this effect. Angels with different drapes in the acts are symmetrically located on the sides.
• One hundred years later, Masaccio, being within the limits of the altar paintings, confidently creates a three-dimensional picture of the chubby baby Christ sucking his fingers. In perspective, lutes are depicted on which little angels play.
• The artist Fra Beato Angelico was known for his delicacy in the image of the Madonna, which is demonstrated by the way angels group around her.As in the painting of Masaccio, the halo of the Madonna is decorated with pseudo-Kufic (pseudo-Arabic) inscriptions, probably to indicate her Middle Eastern origin.
• In the painting by Piero della Francesca, the frame turns into a classic niche. The artist turns to a linear perspective in daylight. Madonna is traditionally depicted on a larger scale than other figures.
• The Bellini painting combines realism in the depiction of figures, with Byzantine traditions in icon painting.
• Milanese artist Bergognone relied on the work of Mantegna and Bellini to create a picture in which Catherine of Alexandria’s red robe and golden hair are effectively balanced by Catherine’s contrasting black and white robes from Siena. The picture is framed by a broken brick arch.
• In the painting by Andrea Mantegna Madonna della Vittoria Madonna occupies a central place framed by garlands of an arbor, but the Italian condottiere, the Marquis of Mantua Francesco II Gonzaga and the heroic saints Michael and George are also in the spotlight.
• Leonardo da Vinci refused any formalities and surrounded Madonna and child with a majestic nature.
• In the Sistine Madonna, Rafael uses the form of a ceremonial portrait with a frame of green curtains through which you can see Pope Sixtus II, after whom the work is named. This work has become a model for the artist Murillo, and many other artists.
• Andrea del Sarto in his painting used the manner of realism, placing the Madonna on a classic pedestal, as if it were a statue. Each figure in his picture is in a state of instability, as can be seen from the raising of the knees by the figures. The picture shows the trends that were further developed in the mannerism painting.

Images of the Madonna and Child in the Renaissance were produced in very large quantities, more often for private clients. Scenes from the life of Christ , the life of the Virgin Mary and the life of the saints were also made in large numbers, especially scenes related to Christmas and the passions of Christ .

Wealthy philanthropists ordered secular artworks for decoration for their homes.

Madonna

Small paintings depicting the Madonna are in most art museums in the world. Paintings were painted more often by orders of private individuals, but they also ordered paintings for the altars of the chapels.

• In the painting Madonna and Child with Two Angels, an angel with a smile supports the baby Christ. In the picture of Filippo Lippi, the influence of Botticelli's creativity is felt.
• Verrocchio separates the Madonna and child Christ from the viewer through a stone window sill, which is also used in many portraits. Roses and cherries symbolize spiritual and sacrificial love.
• The painting by Antonello da Messina Madonna and the child are very similar in appearance to Verrocchio's paintings, but there are much fewer conventions in it, it seems that the child is moving, not posing for the artist.
• The figures in the painting of the Madonna and Child by Leonardo da Vinci are placed on the diagonals. This composition is repeated in many of his works.
• Giovanni Bellini 's painting was influenced by the Greek Orthodox icon . The blue fabric in this picture is painted on a gold leaf. In the background is the city by the river, the horseman and the sages.
• In the painting by Vittore Carpaccio Madonna and Child and St. John the Baptist, the child’s modern clothes are unusual. Careful detailing of life was characteristic of early Dutch painting .
• The painting by Michelangelo Madonna Doni is the largest of the presented works. The position of the Madonna is unusual, the three heads at the top of the picture carry complex functions. The picture is imbued with symbolism. So, the clover in the foreground symbolizes the Trinity, hyssop before John the Baptist - baptism. Mysterious nude male figures in the background, separated from the Holy Family by a horizontal strip and do not look at Christ. Numerous interpretations of these figures are given in art history literature, from theological (ancient pagans awaiting baptism) to psychoanalytic (homosexual attraction of the author) ^{[3] [4]} .
• Raphael skillfully combined the opposing forces with the game. Madonna and child look at each other with a loving look.

Nude

Four famous paintings demonstrate the emergence and adoption of “nude” as themes for artists.

• In the picture of Botticelli, the Birth of Venus, the nude figure occupies a central place in the picture. The plot of the picture is a story from classical mythology. The fact that the Goddess Venus was born from sea foam and goes to land is an iconographic type of her depiction in modern times. The painting was painted for Lorenzo di Pierfranchesko Medici. The naked goddess swims ashore in the shell of the ribbed heart ^[5] , driven by the wind. On the left side of the picture Zephyr (west wind) in the arms of his wife Chlorida blows on the sink, creating a wind filled with flowers. On the shore of the goddess meets one of the graces.
• The purpose of the painting created thirty years later by Giovanni Bellini is not entirely clear. In the Renaissance work, the presence of a mirror has a symbolic meaning, suggesting a certain allegory. The nudity of a young lady is a sign of not so much seduction as innocence and defenselessness. The presence of two mirrors is a sign of infinity. The mirror is often a symbol of prophecy, vanity. A young woman acts as a Narcissus .
• Giorgione's painting predates Bellini for ten years. The picture, known as Sleeping Venus, is distinguished by the absence of symbolic elements; emphasis is placed on the body as an object of beauty. It is believed that the painting was completed by Titian.
• Titian's painting Venus Urbinskaya , on the other hand, was written for the entertainment of the Duke of Urbino, and as in Botticelli's birth of Venus, a woman looks directly at the viewer. Venus is represented by a young woman as a symbol of heavenly perfection.

Self

As the mastery of realistic portraits of Renaissance artists grows, more and more attention is drawn to the figures depicted. Artists do not miss the opportunity to put a self portrait in their picture. There are several self-portraits of the artist Domenico Ghirlandaio , who also painted a portrait of his whole family (Capella Tornabuoni, Santa Maria Novella, 1485–90): Tommaso's father, himself, brother David and brother-in-law Bastiano Maynardi, who helped him in the paintings, self-portraits of Leonardo da Vinci, Luke are known Signorelli, Titian, Raphael, Botticelli and others.

Throughout the 15th century, the “hidden” portrait has become increasingly apparent; individual characters of religious paintings turn into group portraits. The increasing realism of painting stems from new forms of donor and easel portrait.

Classical Mythology

Pictures with plots of classical mythology were created by artists for salons in the homes of wealthy customers. Botticelli created his most famous works for the Medici, Rafael portrayed Galatea for the Italian banker, who credited Popes Julius II and Leo X, Cesare Borgia and the Medici family - Agostino Chigi , paintings by Bellini Pier of the Gods and some works of Titian - for the house of the Duke of Ferrara, Modena and Reggio Alfonso I d'Este .

• In the picture of Pollaiolo Hercules and Hydra, good conquers evil. The theme of Hercules is related to the biblical character Samson , who was known for his strength by killing Leo.
• In the painting, Botticelli Pallas and the Centaur, the goddess Athena, personifying wisdom, takes the centaur by the hair, which is a symbol of overcoming the gross instincts that the centaur symbolizes.
• The plot of the painting by Raphael Triumph Galatea is of classical origin. This is about the nature of love. While Galatea’s surroundings, wounded by the arrows of cupids, seek earthly love, Galatea chooses spiritual love, turning her gaze to heaven.
• Bellini's painting, completed by Titian , "Bacchus and Ariadne" presents the audience with a naturalistic depiction of the ancient gods and their merry environment.

• Italian Renaissance Painting

General

• Smirnova I. A. Monumental painting of the Italian Renaissance. M. Publ. Art. 1987 year
• Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists , (1568), 1965 edition, trans George Bull, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-044164-6
• Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art , (1970) Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-23136-2
• RE Wolf and R. Millen, Renaissance and Mannerist Art , (1968) Abrams, ISBN unknown
• Keith Chistiansen, Italian Painting , (1992) Hugh Lauter Levin / Macmillan, ISBN 0883639718
• Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages , (1970) Harcourt, Brace and World, ISBN 0-15-503752-8
• Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy , (1974) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-881329-5
• Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe , (1979) Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-33009-3
• Ilan Rachum, The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia , (1979) Octopus, ISBN 0-7064-0857-8
• Diana Davies, Harrap's Illustrated Dictionary of Art and Artists , (1990) Harrap Books, ISBN 0-245-54692-8
• Luciano Berti, Florence: the city and its art , (1971) Scala, ISBN unknown
• Luciano Berti, The Ufizzi , (1971) Scala, Florence. ISBN unknown
• Michael Wilson, The National Gallery, London , (1977) Scala, ISBN 0-85097-257-4
• Hugh Ross Williamson, Lorenzo the Magnificent , (1974) Michael Joseph, ISBN 0-7181-1204-0

Artists

• John White, Duccio , (1979) Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-09135-8
• Cecilia Jannella, Duccio di Buoninsegna , (1991) Scala / Riverside, ISBN 1-878351-18-4
• Sarel Eimerl, The World of Giotto , (1967) Time / Life, ISBN 0-900658-15-0
• Mgr. Giovanni Foffani, Frescoes by Giusto de 'Menabuoi , (1988) G. Deganello, ISBN unknown
• Ornella Casazza, Masaccio and the Brancacci Chapel , (1990) Scala / Riverside, ISBN 1-878351-11-7
• Annarita Paolieri, Paolo Uccello, Domenico Veneziano, Andrea del Castagno , (1991) Scala / Riverside, ISBN 1-878351-20-6
• Alessandro Angelini, Piero della Francesca , (1985) Scala / Riverside, ISBN 1-878351-04-4
• Peter Murray and Pier Luigi Vecchi, Piero della Francesca , (1967) Penguin, ISBN 0-14-008647-1
• Umberto Baldini, Primavera , (1984) Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-2314-9
• Ranieri Varese, Il Palazzo di Schifanoia , (1980) Specimen / Scala, ISBN unknown
• Angela Ottino della Chiesa, Leonardo da Vinci , (1967) Penguin, ISBN 0-14-008649-8
• Jack Wasserman, Leonardo da Vinci , (1975) Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-0262-1
• Massimo Giacometti, The Sistine Chapel , (1986) Harmony Books, ISBN 0-517-56274-X
• Ludwig Goldschieder, Michelangelo , (1962) Phaidon, ISBN unknown
• Gabriel Bartz and Eberhard König, Michelangelo , (1998) Könemann, ISBN 3-8290-0253-X
• David Thompson, Raphael, the Life and Legacy , (1983) BBC, ISBN 0-563-20149-5
• Jean-Pierre Cuzin, Raphael, his Life and Works , (1985) Chartwell, ISBN 0-89009-841-7
• Mariolina Olivari, Giovanni Bellini , (1990) Scala. ISBN unknown
• Cecil Gould, Titian , (1969) Hamlyn, ISBN unknown