Hedonistic hunger

Although hunger can occur with a lack of energy or nutrients, it can also be associated with the expected enjoyment of eating food ^[5] . L. Gramlich in his works identifies, respectively, homeostatic polyphagy (overeating due to lack of energy) and hedonic polyphagy (overeating due to the pleasure of eating food) ^[6] . Thus, hunger and eating behavior are regulated not only by homeostatic, but also by hedonistic and cognitive processes ^[7] . Although these mechanisms interact with each other and partially overlap ^[2] , they can nevertheless be separated ^{[7] [8]} . Apparently, the tendency to eat more than their own physical needs require has developed in humans during evolution : in the face of a lack of resources, the desire to seek and consume calories has contributed to survival ^{[9] [10]} . Even just the presence of the desired (“hedonistic”) food or its anticipation can make a person hungry ^[11] . The psychological effect of hedonistic hunger may be equivalent to the effect of other hedonistic activities, such as recreational drug use or ludomania ^{[2] [12] [13]} . Susceptibility to hedonic hunger signals of the environment can lead to overeating in a society where high-calorie and inexpensive foods are readily available ^[1] . Such hedonistic nutrition outweighs the body’s ability to regulate consumption with a sense of satiety ^[14] .

A related phenomenon is a specific appetite , also known as a specific hunger - the desire to eat food with a specific taste or other specific characteristic. However, when discussing specific hunger, more attention is paid to acquired (learned) eating behavior, rather than congenital and evolutionarily driven hedonistic appetite ^[15] .

Certain products may have a higher “hedonic rating” ^[16] . “Hedonistic rating” reflects what foods people are more likely to eat, even when they do not feel hunger ^{[8] [17] [18]} . For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) suggests that fed rats prefer a mixture of fats and carbohydrates in the form of potato chips , rather than their usual food. Researchers suggest that overeating in the absence of an energy deficiency is associated with the availability of enjoyable food ^[1] .

Individuals may be more susceptible to food-related environmental signals (food odors, type of food, talking about food) that cause a feeling of hedonistic hunger ^[16] . Genetic variation can affect hedonic polyphagy ^{[8] [14]} . Interpersonal differences in the level of hedonistic hunger can be a key factor on which the success of certain weight loss methods and a person’s ability to withstand the temptation of readily available food depends. To assess the level of hedonistic hunger, a special scale called Power of Food Scale (PFS) was developed, which consists of 15 statements (such as “If I see food that I like or smell, I have a strong desire to eat”, “When I eat my favorite food, I feel great pleasure”, “I often think about food”), with which you can agree or disagree on a scale of 1 (“I completely disagree”) to 5 (“I completely agree”) ^{[1 ] [2] [19] [20]} . People who are obese , as well as people with eating disorders such as bulimia , have a higher PFS score ^[21] . A high PFS score is associated with a tendency to compulsive overeating ^[1] . Lower PFS scores contribute to more successful weight loss ^[16] .

The reinforcing value of food is determined by how hard someone is willing to work to get food. Several factors influence the reinforcing value, including the expected pleasure of eating food, preliminary deprivation of food, its variety, expected satiety, and possible hunger between meals (expected satiety); it is partially regulated by dopaminergic activity in the brain ^[22] .

Weight loss programs may aim to control hedonic hunger ^{[3] [8]} . Low-calorie foods with high satiety can be a useful tool for weight control ^[23] . For example, popcorn is less calorie than potato chips, and faster causes a feeling of fullness ^[24] . The addition of dietary fiber to foods and drinks enhances the feeling of fullness and reduces calorie intake in the next meal ^[25] . Yogurt drinks are more nutritious than fruit juice; low-calorie yogurt with inulin and high-calorie yogurt are equally satisfying ^[23] . People with a high PFS score can do better in weight loss using meal replacement foods ^{[16] [26]} .

Medications can affect hedonistic eating behavior. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists (ARs), such as exenatide and , which are used to treat diabetes , can help suppress nutritionally motivated behavior ^[4] . Inhibition of dopamine transport increases its concentration in the brain, which can reduce calorie intake ^[22] .

Various types of bariatric surgery can affect hedonic hunger ^{[21] [27] [28]} , especially if it is accompanied by psychological counseling that helps limit hedonistic outbursts ^[29] . Perhaps these operations work partly because they increase the production of certain gastrointestinal hormones , in particular glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide YY ^{[21] [5]} ; some studies also indicate a decrease in ghrelin concentration, but the results remain inconsistent ^[21] .

• Eating Disorders
• Glucagon-like peptide-1
• YY peptide
• Ghrelin
• Bulimia
• Polyphagy (symptom)

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• Anti-Obesity Drug Discovery and Development / edited by Atta-ur- Rahman, MI Choudhary. - Bentham Science Publishers, 2011 .-- Vol. 1.- ISBN 978-1-60805-163-2 .
• Pinel J. Biopsychology . - 7th ed. - Pearson / Allyn and Bacon, 2009 .-- ISBN 020554892X .
• Evidence-Based Gastroenterology and Hepatology / edited by JWD McDonald, AK Burroughs, BG Feagan, MB Fennerty. - 3rd ed. - John Wiley & Sons, 2011. - (Evidence-Based Medicine). - ISBN 978-1-4443-4780-7 .