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Muhajirism in the North Caucasus

“Abandonment by the Highlanders of the aul at the approach of the Russian troops”, thin. P.N. Gruzinsky , 1872

Mujajirism in the North Caucasus - Mujajirism of a significant part of the Muslim population of the North Caucasus into the Ottoman Empire . Especially widespread in the last years of the Caucasian War (1817-1864) and immediately after its end. During this period - from 1858 to 1865 - about half a million people left. However, the facts of resettlement took place before 1858, and after 1865 - until the First World War (1914-1918). Estimation of the total number of immigrants today is the subject of debate among researchers, the maximum assumptions reach up to 1 million emigrants- muhajirs. There was also a big re-emigration.

The reasons for the North Caucasian muhajirism were many political, economic, social and religious factors caused by the conquest of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire . In the XIX century, Muhajirism significantly changed the ethnic map of the North Caucasus. Another result of this mass emigration was the emergence of North Caucasian diasporas in some areas of Anatolia , Bulgaria , Egypt , Jordan , Mesopotamia and Syria .

S.-E. Badayev disputes the lawfulness of the use of the term “muhajirism” to the resettlement of Caucasian peoples, since this term implies voluntary resettlement for religious reasons. In relation to the mountain people, this is not true, since they were forced to resettle by the policy of the Russian Empire [1] .

Region and Political Situation

The North Caucasus found itself on the path of the territorial and political expansion of the Russian state after the conquest by Tsar Ivan IV of the Astrakhan Khanate (1556). In addition to the Russian kingdom (later the Russian Empire ), the main geopolitical players who claimed the Caucasus were Ottoman Turkey (with the Crimean Khanate ) and Iran ( Safavid , Afsharid , etc.). During the North Caucasian period of Muhajirism — in the 19th century — the Ottoman Empire and Iran were already in a period of decline, while Russia, on the contrary, had achieved significant military and political successes. At the beginning of the century, it won two Russian-Iranian ( 1804-1813 and 1826-1828 ) and two Russian-Turkish wars ( 1806-1812 and 1828-1829 ), only the Crimean War (1853-1856) in the middle of the century held back the Russian expansion. Russia's confrontation with the Muslim resistance movement ( Muridism ) resulted in the Caucasian War (1817-1864), which resulted in the defeat of the theocratic state of the North Caucasian Imamat and Russia's subjugation of the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus. The next Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) again crowned with the victory of the Russian Empire.

As a result of a series of Russian-Iranian (1651-1911) and Russian-Turkish (1568-1918) wars, as well as the Caucasian war, the question of dominion in the Caucasus in favor of the Russian Empire was actually resolved. In the XIX century, Caucasian governorate (second) was formed here with a center in Tiflis . To gain control over the region, the Russian administration actively built fortifications and Cossack villages , cleared roads and roads, arranged crossings, and the imperial troops were constantly redeployed throughout the territory of the governorate. The authorities also carried out various mass relocations (for example, the Highlanders - to the plains, the Nogais - to the bailiffs , the Azov , Kuban and Terek Cossacks - to the lands of the Highlanders and Nogais).

General information

Under the pressure of the Russian Empire , among the Muslim population of the North Caucasus , a peculiar form of resettlement, Muhajirism, began to acquire mass character. Its meaning was the exodus of Muslims from a non-Muslim state; for the North Caucasus region, this was the emigration of Muslims from an alien to them, capturing the North Caucasian lands of Orthodox Russia, into the citizenship of a single-faith Ottoman Turkey . In the Russian Empire, this phenomenon was not unique - in different periods there was mujajirism to Ottoman Turkey and from other regions captured by the empire - for example, the resettlement of Crimean Tatars from Crimea or Nogais from the Northern Black Sea coast . Also in history there is a fact of the exodus of the population from the North Caucasus to Ottoman Turkey that does not fall under the definition of “Muhajirism” - the emigration of Orthodox Old Believers Cossacks - Nekrasovites from the Kuban .

The North Caucasian Muhajirism took on a significant character in the last years of the Caucasian War (1817-1864) and immediately after its end. During this period - from 1858 to 1865 - about half a million people left (officially 493 194 people). However, the facts of resettlement, with varying intensity, took place both before 1858, and after 1865 - until the First World War (1914-1918) [2] [3] [4] . Some cases of mujajirism before mass emigration often occurred under the guise of a pilgrimage to Mecca [2] .

The position of the North Caucasian nobility

In the 19th century, the ruling circles of various state formations and influential people of many democratized societies of the North Caucasus were divided into camps - either supporting the expansion of the Russian Empire, or opposing its colonization; the movement of Muhajirism suited both sides [~ 1] . Supporters of Russia supported the resettlement, as this position was instilled by the Russian administration leading them, and also because of the possibility of seizing the land of those who left. Some opponents of Russia in Soviet historical science were credited with the ideas of pan-Turkism . There were also those condemning the departure to Turkey, mainly for economic reasons - the North Caucasian feudal lords lost their peasants [5] . Part of the nobility emigrated to Turkey itself, often taking dependent peasants and slaves with them [~ 2] [6] .

The position of the Russian government

The governments of emperors Alexander I ( reign . 1801–1825) and Nicholas I (reign. 1825–1855) were negative about the resettlement of Muslims from Russia and, in general, that a population left the country (the facts of the outcome of the Muslims were examined and attempts were made to prevention). However, during the reign of Alexander II (reign. 1855-1881), the policy of the Russian government changed - the authorities began to actively promote mujajirism, focusing their main efforts in the North-West Caucasus. One of the methods of the Russian administration was to aggravate the issue of the territories of the North Caucasians - they were either constrained in land plots or even forced to move to new places (mainly from the mountains to the plains, for demilitarization purposes). The Azov and Kuban Cossacks were massively resettled to the liberated territories. According to the Caucasian governor , Field Marshal , Prince A. I. Baryatinsky, “the only reliable means for the firm assertion of our rule in the Western Caucasus is to occupy the mountainous and foothill spaces by our armed Cossack population ...” [7] . Supporting the idea of ​​mujajirism, the Russian authorities widely conducted agitation (explicit and secret) among Muslims calling for resettlement to Turkey [5] , often pushing even completely “peaceful” villages to leave [4] [~ 3] .

In the Russian enlightened society of the 19th century, a negative attitude towards muhajirism was mainly formed, since many educated people saw the conquest of the Caucasus not only as a seizure of territories, but as its full inclusion in the empire, which implied the acceptance by its population of the principles of Russian citizenship. One of the indications expressed by one of the authors of the Collection of Information on the Caucasian Highlanders (1868) was that “the epidemic of resettlement to Turkey, which is growing from time to time, we hope will be cured ...” [8] . Some Russian scholars have put forward economic justifications for the inappropriateness of mujajirism for Russia, for example, the Russian historian, Major General R. A. Fadeev, believed that “by allowing the highlanders who move to Turkey to lead a mass of their serfs , we deprive ourselves of extremely hardworking, humble and in no way dangerous people ” [9] .

Ottoman Government Position

The governments of the sultans of Mahmud II (reign. 1808–1839), Abdul-Majid I (reign. 1839–1861) and Abdul-Aziz I (reign. 1861–1876) supported the Muhajir movement by all means. The Ottoman administration agreed to accept large numbers of refugee parties and strongly encouraged Muhajirs with proclamations containing various promises and religious slogans [10] . The Turkish administration campaigned for immigrants to receive land allotments and cash benefits, as well as declaring religious freedom for Muslims in Muslim Turkey, and for those remaining in Russia - an unreasonable threat of forced adoption of Orthodoxy [~ 4] [11] .

Relocation Issues

Despite the fact that most mujajirs emigrated voluntarily, many of them did not receive any benefits from this resettlement, being doomed to starvation and disease [12] .

Reasons

Muhajirism was a consequence of the colonial policy of the Russian Empire in the North Caucasus, it was actually carried out thanks to the support of the Russian government, but was partly due to some reasons independent of this policy - economic, social and religious. A number of researchers who have studied this issue note the complexity and diversity of the causes of North Caucasian muhajirism [13] [14] .

Political

  • The population of the North Caucasus received one of the significant impetus for resettlement in 1859 - an event for the whole region was the capture of Imam Shamil ; The North Caucasian imamat , as a guarantee of future liberation from the Russian yoke, was defeated. Many North Caucasian residents "lost heart and decided to leave the land, doomed forever to be the property of the infidels" [15] . Another major military-political and economic factor was the decision of the Russian government to relocate the highlanders to the plains. This demilitarization measure also served as one of the main causes of muhajirism (eg for Western Circassians in the North-West Caucasus) [16] .
  • The Russian government believed that the eviction of part of the North Caucasians would accelerate the conquest of the region, “the Caucasus will get rid of the restless and least populated population on the coasts of the Kuban ” (in particular, the Caucasian governor , Field Marshal , Prince A. I. Baryatinsky and the commander of the right wing of the Caucasus adhered to this position lines , Adjutant General , Count N. I. Evdokimov ) [4] . In addition, the Russian administration was displeased that the presence of a disloyal Russian mountain population allowed foreign intelligence to operate here. According to A. I. Baryatinsky, “in peacetime, it [the North-Western part of the Caucasus] serves as a field of secret machinations of foreign agents trying to inflate and maintain hatred towards us [Russia] among the Highlanders” [17] . There were also fears that in the event of another Russian-Turkish war , the Ottoman Turkey would use the rebellious North Caucasian population in the Caucasus - the arena of possible military-political events [2] . A. I. Baryatinsky suggested that "the landing of a small detachment of [Turkish] regular troops, possible on the entire eastern shore of the Black Sea , will serve as a signal for a general uprising of the highlanders" [7] .
  • The Ottoman government in the person of the Muhajirs received a significant military contingent, the Ottoman administration tried to resettle migrants along the Russian-Turkish border, thus strengthening it with a population hostile towards Russia [12] . In Russia, it was not unreasonably believed that Muhajir is “a person who goes to the Muslim kingdom in order to be an enemy of Russia and to raise weapons against it during the first war ...” [6] .

Economic

  • The main part of the population of the North Caucasus was engaged in peasant farming , and for him the question of land was especially important. However, the new Russian administration in every possible way aggravated this issue - either restricting the North Caucasians in their personal allotments, or forcing them to move to these new territories; the latter fact, in fact, served as the main reason for muhajirism for many local residents. Also, in the period after the end of hostilities, there was some confusion regarding the Russian administration regarding the dependent peasants and slaves [~ 2] owned by the North Caucasian nobility. Often, rumors of the imminent liberation of the dependent estate forced the owners to leave with peasants and slaves in Turkey [6] . It is likely that some non-emigrant representatives of the nobility were actively pushing the population to leave, hoping to get the land being vacated [5] .
  • The Russian government , after the eviction of part of the local Muslim population, received huge land spaces necessary for the empire to populate the Cossacks and distribute land to a loyal North Caucasian nobility [10] [4] . It was partially intended to populate the liberated plain and foothill lands with the mountain population, who had not left for Turkey, but which it was decided to evict from the mountains [7] .

Social

  • The inhabitants of the North Caucasus had a complex social-tribal structure, different in status and size of society, had close internal ties, which played a huge role in the life of the local population. This led to the fact that behind the influential person who decided to emigrate, the whole family / surname often rose [18] . Another whole category of North Caucasians - dependent peasants and slaves , left with the owners, according to the decision of their masters. The nobility was given sufficient arbitrariness on the part of the Russian authorities to take away people who didn’t even want to emigrate (sometimes peasants and slaves agreed to resettle “only so as not to be sold into bad hands”) [6] .
  • For the Russian Empire, the conquest of the North Caucasus brought difficulties in adapting the local population to the beginnings of Russian citizenship. Many residents of the region found themselves in Russian citizenship not voluntarily and negatively perceived various restrictive measures of the Russian government. Especially unacceptable for the North Caucasians was the possibility of such innovations as the complete surrender of personal weapons and recruitment kits to the Imperial Army . Sometimes, only rumors about the introduction of these measures were enough to push people to relocate from the country [19] [11] . The cruelty of the Russian administration, its abuse and theft [11] , as well as the atrocities of the Cossacks resettled here (for example, the Infantry General N. F. Rtishchev [18] , later R. A. Fadeev, reported about the oppression of the Nogais by Cossacks in 1814, became a problem). he wrote “about many cases of murder and robbery committed by Cossacks over highlanders” in the North-West Caucasus [21] ).

Religious

  • The inhabitants of the North Caucasus in the 19th century, for the most part, were adherents of Muridism - one of the trends in Sufism . By the middle of the century, parallel to muridism, the sermons of yet another religious movement, dhikrism , gained popularity. According to R. A. Fadeev , it is precisely due to the influence of dhikrism that a tendency to resettle in Turkey has formed [15] . Also, the opposite opinion was expressed among Russian scholars - the ideas of dhikrism occupied some believers on their own, and “the idea of ​​moving to Turkey and the rumors about this land promised to the highlanders began to divert little by little the general attention from the old religious and political question [dhikrism]” [22] . Muhajirs often made various religious arguments in favor of their departure, for example, they stated that "the times are approaching and they need to be closer to Mecca ." The reason for the departure was sometimes served by mystical rumors, one of which claimed "that the namaz performed on the land owned by Christians is not valid and does not lead to salvation" [15] or an unfounded rumor about the possible baptism of the highlanders [~ 4] [11] .
  • The main reason for mujajirism, religious fanaticism , declared by Russian imperial propaganda, was not such. The opinion of the Dargin Haji-Murad Amirov is indicative, in a diary published in 1873 he asked to pay attention to "who exactly is moving to Turkey - inveterate fanatics, what are mullahs and cadiyi , or ordinary people ..." [23] . R. A. Fadeev pointed out that the resettling Circassian serfs "... an oppressed class that does not know almost the Muslim religion" [6] . According to researchers of the XX – XXI centuries, the causes of mujajirism are much more complex and diverse only religious [14] .

National composition

Muhajirism among the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples

Among the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples, Kabardins relatively little went to Turkey. The most massive and lengthy was the resettlement of Abkhazians , Abazins and Western Circassians . After the Caucasian war, the Western Circassians refused the offer of the Russian government to move from the mountains to the plains and preferred the alternative - emigration to Turkey [16] .

Muhajirism among the Turks of the North Caucasus

Different Turkic peoples of the North Caucasus perceived the idea of ​​emigration to Turkey in different ways, as sometimes they found themselves in different political and economic conditions. For example, the Balkars almost did not resettle, and the Nogais, on the contrary, left Russia in large numbers [10] .

Nogais. One of the first North Caucasian Nogais who fell into the citizenship of the Russian state was the Nogai Cuban societies wandered under the rule of Tarkovsky shamhalstvo in the Tersko - Sulak interfluve [~ 5] . As a result of the Persian campaigns (1722-1723) of the Russian emperor Peter I (reigned 1682-1725), Tarkov shamshalstvo was subordinated, however, the Nogai vassal shamkhalstva did not immediately establish relations with Russia. The Karanogais were the first to express the humility of the empire, then the Aksaev and Kostekov Nogais, and the Andyreev subjugated by force. In 1735, Russia ceded the Safavid Iran to the lands conquered by the army of Peter I, inviting the Nogais to choose citizenship themselves, as a result, only the Karanogais remained under Russian rule, having completely migrated to the shrunken Russian territory to Kizlyar by 1736 [24] .

The first mass resettlement of the Nogais to Ottoman Turkey (and the Crimean Khanate ) from under the rule of an ever-expanding territory of Russia was the withdrawal of the cubes of the Edisan and Dzhambuylutsk hordes in the 60s of the 18th century (part of the Great Nogai Horde that had broken up to that period). Resettlement was associated with the next Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) and took place both in the North Caucasus — care of the Kuban [~ 6] , and in the Northern Black Sea Region — care of the Dnieper . Emigration was facilitated, on the one hand, by the work of Turkish-Crimean agitators, and on the other, by the policy of oppressing the Nogais by the government of the Russian Empress Catherine II (reigned 1762-1796). In the 70s of the 18th century, the Russian administration was able to convince the majority of the Nogais of the Edisan and Dzhambuylutsk hordes to re-emigrate, since their position in the territory of the Crimean Khanate was not better, and perhaps even more ruinous, than under Russian rule. The Nogais returned to the right bank and the upper reaches of the Kuban, as well as to its tributaries - Labu and Zelenchuk , in these territories they were neighbors with the Cubs who had been wandering here since the first half of the 16th century and were members of the Malaya Nogai Horde [25] .

In 1771, after the invasion of Crimea , Russia formed a region of Crimean Tatars and Nogais (including territories in the Kuban ) under the rule of Sahib II Geraya and its patronage, and after the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhiysky world in 1774, these territories gained independence. During this period, anti-Russian actions constantly flashed among the local population, including Nogai, and after the manifesto of Catherine II of 1783 on the annexation of Crimea, Taman and the right bank of the Kuban to Russia, unrest intensified among the Nogai cubes and they again began to relocate to Turkish territories ( Nogai uprising in 1783). The Russian government decided to prevent emigration by force, and on September 29, a battle of Russian troops led by Lieutenant-General Count A. V. Suvorov and the Nogais took place at the mouth of the Laba, which killed about 10 thousand Nogais, including women and children [ 26] .

During various periods, Turkish agitators acted among the Nogai in Russian territory, after the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812, they actively incited religious intolerance and persuaded to resettle in Turkey, where the Nogais were promised land and freedom of religion (supposedly the rest would be forced to convert to Orthodoxy ). In 1813, 27 thousand Nogais left for the Ottoman Empire - in the territory of the Kuban Valley (Trans-Kubanie) partially controlled by Turkey. However, the resettlement was provoked not by Turkish agents, but by the inaction of the government of Alexander I (rights. 1801-1825), since the Nogais were constantly subjected to cruelties and insults from the local administration on the ground. Abuses of the head of one of the Nogai police officers Kornilov and the commander in the Caucasus line, Major General S. A. Portnyagin, were known (both were subsequently convicted for this). It was the extraordinary cruelty of A. S. Portnyagin with which he arranged lynching over the Nogais and caused their unrest [11] .

Muhajirism among the Nakh peoples

The Ingush almost did not resettle [16] .

Muhajirism among the peoples of Dagestan

Мухаджирство имело место среди дагестанцев [27] .

Мухаджирство в среде осетинских обществ

У осетин переселялись преимущественно представители Тагаурского, Куртатинского и Дигорского обществ. Особо сильно пустели земли тагаурцев и куртатинцев. На сегодняшний день в Турции, до сих пор, стоят селения и мечети, построенные мухаджирами-осетинами.

Численность мухаджиров

К 1860 году почти все горцы [~ 7] и ногайцы между Кубанью и Лабою , а также небольшие общества между Лабою и Белою , переселились в Турцию [7] .

Российской администрацией численность мухаджиров фиксировалась, но эти сведения были далеко не точными. Более того, в военное и послевоенное время, на захваченных Россией территориях, численность даже не уехавшего населения была известна приблизительно. Например, данные по местному населению Кубанской области от приставства , и данные от штаба командующего войсками, иногда расходились почти вдвое. Местному начальству серьёзная статистическая работа была «далеко не по силамъ», а здешние жители часто занижали численность своих аулов (если проходил слух об обложении податью) или наоборот, завышали (если рассчитывали на наделение землёй по количеству показанных жителей). «При замкнутости жизни, не допускающей гостя проникнуть далее кунацкой … нельзя было проверить показаний» указываемых местным населением [28] .

Мухаджиры в Османской империи

Отношение в Османской империи к мухаджирам было разное, вероятно, среди переселенцев встречались люди которые «не прочь заниматься промыслами, запрещаемыми Кораномъ [преступлениями]», что часто вызывало неприязнь к северокавказским приезжим среди местного населения [29] .

Реэмиграция

Со временем, по разным причинам значительная часть мухаджиров возвращалась обратно в Россию, как писал современник этих событий, переселенцы «толпами начинаютъ бежать обратно, с мольбами — селить их где угодно и как угодно …» [8] .

Consequences

В XIX веке мухаджирство изменило этническую карту Северного Кавказа — в районах с наибольшим оттоком мусульманского населения значительно, а иногда и полностью, поменялся национальный состав. Для истории северокавказского региона XIX века этот процесс был достаточно значимым, наряду с такими факторами, как военные действия Российской императорской армии в 40—60-е годы, различные проводимые здесь реформы российского правительства, миграция малоземельных горских обществ на равнину Предкавказья , а также массовые переселения на Северный Кавказ представителей других национальностей [14] .

Для стран, входивших в состав Османской империи , итогом мухаджирства мусульманского населения Северного Кавказа стало появление северокавказских диаспор в некоторых районах Анатолии , Болгарии , Египта , Иордании , Месопотамии и Сирии .

Historiography

Вопросам северокавказского мухаджирства посвящены работы Х. О. Лайпанова (1966) [13] и А. Х. Касумова (1967) [30] , а также раздел в труде Н. Г. Волковой (1974) [31] .

Notes

Comments
  1. ↑ Обвинения в адрес господствующих классов России, в том числе и горской знати, были популярны в историографии советского периода. В соответствии с советской идеологией, историками высказывались мнения, что «широко поощрялся уход за границу не только горцев, но и представителей других национальностей — русских, белорусов, украинцев, евреев, так как это вполне отвечало экономическим и политическим интересам русских помещиков и буржуазии, а также горских феодалов» ( Лайпанов, 1966 , с. 112).
  2. ↑ 1 2 В XIX веке на Северном Кавказе ещё не изжило себя рабовладение . Согласно российскому историку, генерал-майору Р. А. Фадееву , в Закубанской области рабы составляли около трети населения, в Дагестане они принадлежали только ханам, в Чечне рабов было очень мало ( Фадеев, 1889 , с. 68).
  3. ↑ В историографии советского периода действия российского правительства рассматривались как крайне реакционные. Согласно формулировке советских историков, «царизм всеми средствами разжигал переселенческое движение горцев». Высказывались предположения, что российская администрация, ведя среди мусульман агитацию с призывом переселения в Турцию, могла использовать сфальсифицированные прокламации, выдавая их за обращение от имени какого-либо турецкого паши ( Лайпанов, 1966 , с. 112).
  4. ↑ 1 2 В 1846 году в Российской империи титулярным советником А. А. Бегичевым был предложен проект «О введении христианской веры на Кавказе между горскими народами» ( РГИА, 1846 ).
  5. ↑ Из-за междоусобиц в Ногайской Орде в первой половине XVI века, часть ногайских обществ-кубов переселилось с Низовий Волги и Урала на Северный Кавказ . В Терско - Сулакское междуречье откочевали кубы под предводительством мурз Урака и Карасая , впоследствии сформировавшие общества аксайских, костековских, эндирейских ногайцев и караногайцев ( Кужелева, 1964 , с. 196).
  6. ↑ Миграции северокавказского населения в земли подвластные Османской империи до середины XIX века осуществлялись собственно в пределах Северного Кавказа, так как часть этого региона была под турецким контролем (напр. Закубанье ).
  7. ↑ В русскоязычной литературе до советского периода термин «горцы» обычно использовался для обозначения населения Кавказских гор и Предкавказья . Несмотря на то, что термин был объединяющим для жителей Кавказа , применялся он для населения «весьма разнохарактернаго, разнообычнаго и разноязычнаго». Многие исследователи мухаджирства часто называют переселенцев «горцами», однако, следует понимать, что среди мухаджиров было множество не горских, а степных и равнинных переселенцев — например ногайцы ( ССКГ I, 1868 , с. I; Барятинский, 1860 (1904) , с. 665).
Sources
  1. ↑ Бадаев, 2008 .
  2. ↑ 1 2 3 Лайпанов, 1966 , с. 111.
  3. ↑ Волкова, 1974 , с. 219—220, 222.
  4. ↑ 1 2 3 4 Миловидов, 2005 , с. 673.
  5. ↑ 1 2 3 Лайпанов, 1966 , с. 112.
  6. ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Фадеев, 1889 , с. 68.
  7. ↑ 1 2 3 4 Барятинский, 1860 (1904) , с. 665.
  8. ↑ 1 2 ССКГ I, 1868 , с. VII.
  9. ↑ Фадеев, 1889 , с. 69.
  10. ↑ 1 2 3 Волкова, 1974 , с. 219-220.
  11. ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Кужелева, 1964 , с. 207.
  12. ↑ 1 2 Волкова, 1974 , с. 220.
  13. ↑ 1 2 Лайпанов, 1966 , с. 111—131.
  14. ↑ 1 2 3 Волкова, 1974 , с. 213, 219.
  15. ↑ 1 2 3 Фадеев, 1889 , с. 182.
  16. ↑ 1 2 3 Волкова, 1974 , с. 219.
  17. ↑ Барятинский, 1860 (1904) , с. 664—665.
  18. ↑ Лайпанов, 1966 , с. 117.
  19. ↑ Амиров, 1873 , с. 58, 60-61.
  20. ↑ Ртищев, 1814 (1873) , с. 857.
  21. ↑ Фадеев, 1889 , с. 71.
  22. ↑ Ипполитов, 1868 (1869) , с. 17.
  23. ↑ Амиров, 1873 , с. 58-59.
  24. ↑ Кужелева, 1964 , с. 196—197.
  25. ↑ Кужелева, 1964 , с. 198.
  26. ↑ Кужелева, 1964 , с. 198-199.
  27. ↑ Амиров, 1873 , с. 58—61.
  28. ↑ Фадеев, 1889 , с. 61.
  29. ↑ Амиров, 1873 , с. 59.
  30. ↑ Касумов, 1967 .
  31. ↑ Волкова, 1974 , с. 219—224.

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Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Мухаджирство_на_Северном_Кавказе&oldid=100336319


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