Morean despotate

Over the course of more than a century of history, the borders of the despotate have changed, and by 1430, under the despot Theodore II Paleolog, its territory occupied almost the entire Peloponnese peninsula, which at that time was called Morea . His successor Konstantin was able to expand the influence of the despotate on the Latin Duchy of Athens and make his ruler a vassal and tributary of Morea ^[2] .

Little is known about the internal organization of the state. Despotat conducted trade relations with the Venetian Republic , which owned several fortresses in the Sea, which was the main supplier of iron. And although there were rich deposits of iron on the territory of the despot, the rulers of Morea did not have specialists in the field of mining and smelting. Mostly, silk production was launched in Morea, which was sold both to Venice and the domestic market ^[3] .

The population of the state mainly consisted of Orthodox Greeks and Albanians . Even during the first despot, Manuel began the active settlement of the Peloponnese by the Albanians. Some of them began to engage in agriculture, while others joined the army of the despot. With the advent of the Paleologists, the policy of attracting Albanians to Morea was continued, and under Theodore I they became the main military force of the despot. All this made it possible to successfully oppose both the Achaean principality and the rebellious archons ^[4] .

Despotism Education

Despotate formed on the territory of the Frankish Principality of Achaea. The principality itself was created as a result of the division of the Byzantine Empire by the crusaders after the Fourth Crusade of 1204. In 1259, the ruler of the principality, Guillaume II de Villardouin , lost the Battle of Pelagonian to the future Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologist . As a result, the Achaean prince was forced to give the emperor most of the eastern Morea and his newly built fortresses. This territory with the capital Mystra became the center of the Morean despotate ^[5] .

In 1308, the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II Palaeologist appointed the first lifelong mullet (viceroy) Morea Michael Cantacuzinus . Due to the remoteness of the region from the possessions of Byzantium, governors enjoyed great autonomy. The arrival of Michael in Morea led to the economic stabilization of the region, giving his successor Andronic Asen the opportunity to start an aggressive war with the Achaean principality for control of the Peloponnese . So the new mullet, taking advantage of the internal struggle in Achaea, by 1320 conquered a large territory in central Morea ^{[6] [7]} .

In 1321 or 1322, Andronicus was recalled to Constantinople due to the internecine war that began in Byzantium between Emperor Andronicus II and his grandson Andronicus III , and nothing is known about the further development of the region. Despite the successful rule of the first governors, by the time the despotate was formed, the situation in Morea was not favorable. On the Greek part of the peninsula, clashes with the Achaean principality constantly occurred. A Turkish pirate flotilla operated at sea, and strife occurred among Greek archons ^{[8] [9]} .

Cantacousin Board

At the end of 1348 or at the beginning of 1349, Emperor John VI Cantacuzine reorganized the territory so as to create an uplift for his son, despot Manuel . Thus was created an autonomous Moray despot at the head of the Cantacuzines dynasty. The first ruler managed to strengthen his power. He subjugated the rebellious archons to his power, repelled the raids of the Turkish pirates and expanded his possessions in the wars with the Achaean principality. Under him, the region also began its de facto independence from the Government of Constantinople ^[8] .

Manuel also tried to build a navy that could completely protect the coast of Morea from Turkish pirates. However, this required a large financial investment, and when Kantakuzin tried to impose an additional tax on the population, the latter rebelled and threatened to overthrow the despot. In the end, Manuel was forced to abandon the idea of ​​building a fleet ^[10] .

During the civil war in Byzantium and the subsequent overthrow of John VI Cantacuzinus, Manuel was able to maintain his power in the Sea. Byzantine Emperor John V Paleolog sent a detachment against him, led by brothers Michael and Andrei Asen. Upon arriving at the Peloponnese in the fall of 1355, the Aseni brothers received the support of some local archons, not satisfied with the power of the despot, and were able to seize most of Manuel's possessions. They plundered the Venetian possessions in order to gather more followers, distributing the prey. However, the overwhelming majority of the population and the Venetians sided with the despot Manuel, and the Byzantine forces were expelled from Morea. Seeing the popularity of Cantacuzine, Emperor John V was forced to recognize the power of the despot Manuel in Morea ^{[11] [8]} .

Nevertheless, at the end of the fourteenth century, the rival dynasty of the Paleologists seized power in Morea after the death of the despot Matthew Kantakuzin in 1383. Before his death, Matthew transferred power over Morea to his son, the Sevastocrator Demetrius I , bequeathed to him to ensure a quiet transition of Morea from the Kantakuzin clan to the Paleologians clan. However, Demetrius did not obey the will of his father and tried to maintain the power of the Cantacuzines in Morea, but in the same year he died ^[12] . Thus, Theodore I Paleologue became the new ruler of Morea ^[13] .

Paleologists Board

Having taken power, the first Palaeologist faced disobedience of the sea archons. The most powerful of them was the ruler of Monemvasia, Pavel Mamon. Unable to cope with it, Theodore tried to cede the city of Venice. Mamon turned to the Ottoman Turks for help. Even before these events, the Morean despotate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire . Sultan Bayazid I called the Paleologist to Serra in 1393. Theodore was forced to obey his order and pledged to transfer Monemvasia to the Ottoman Empire ^[9] .

To cope with the dominance of the archons, Theodore encouraged Orthodox Albanians to settle in Morea. This practice was started by Manuel Kantakuzin. Under the Paleologist, the Albanians created the solid backbone of the despotate army. In addition, the despot made an alliance with the Duchy of Athens , having married his daughter to Duke Nerio I. After these events, Theodore, with the support of Athens, unexpectedly attacked and captured the Venetian fortress of Argos in 1388 ^[9] .

Due to the war in the Levant, the republic could not regain the lost fortress through military operations and tried to return Argos by diplomacy. Several embassies were sent to Theodore, but the despot refused to surrender the fortress. In response, Venice ceased all trade relations with the Morean despot. Only because of the growing Turkish threat did Palaeologist decide to return Argos, and on May 27, 1394, peace was established between Morea and Venice in Modon.

The military operations against the Duchy of Athens, whose ruler Nerio I died, developed more successfully. So with the help of about 20 thousand army, Theodore in 1394 besieged and took Corinth ^[4] .

Despite the vassality, the Ottoman Turks began to raid Morea. Theodore I managed to defeat the Turkish troops several times. But the despot could not oppose the full-scale invasion of the Ottomans. The Turks occupied the whole of Morea. But the Ottomans failed to gain a foothold in the despotate. In 1402, Sultan Bayazid I was defeated in a battle with the Turkic ruler Tamerlane . The ruler of the Ottoman Empire himself was captured and a struggle for power began on his lands. All this allowed the Greeks to maintain power in the sea. Moreover, during the Ottoman interregnum in 1402-1413 and during the reign of Sultan Mehmed I , the Morean despot was able to get rid of the Turkish vassalage ^[13] .

Taking advantage of this opportunity, the Corinthian Isthmus was reinforced in the Morean despotate. Beyond the stout walls, the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Paleologus hoped to create a safe haven in the despot in the event of the fall of Constantinople. So, under the leadership of the emperor, the six-mile wall of Hexamilion was restored on the isthmus. At this time, the capital of the region, Mystra , became a kind of center for the late Byzantine Renaissance, which, of course, was of a relative nature against the background of the fading Constantinople ^{[13] [14]} .

After the death of Theodore I in 1407, the new despot Theodore II Palaeologist waged wars with the Achaean principality all the time, trying to capture the entire Peloponnese. In 1416-1417, the despot managed to seize almost all Latin possessions on the peninsula, and only the intervention of Venice delayed the final fall of the Achaean principality ^[15] . Soon, a war began with the despot Epirus Charles I Tokko , who was trying to prevent the Greeks from capturing their ancestral lands in the Peloponnese. Theodore II enlisted the help of his brother the Byzantine emperor John VIII . The emperor personally arrived in Morea with his brother Konstantin . Together, the brothers besieged from the sea and from land Glarenza, which became the residence of Carlo I. In turn, the despot Epirus gathered the fleet from all his possessions. In the ensuing battle of the Echinad Islands in 1427, Tokko troops were defeated. The despot of Epirus abandoned his territorial claims to the Peloponnese ^{[16] [9]} .

After these events, since 1428, the despotate began the joint rule of the three Paleologians: Theodore II remained in Mystra, Constantine became the ruler of Glarents, and the third - Thomas received the region in Arcadia ^[9] .

At the same time, the military and economic forces of the Morean despotate were undermined by the Turkish invasion. In 1421, Murad II ascended the Ottoman throne, who began to restore Turkish power, undermined by the Ottoman kingdom. In the spring of 1423, the Ottomans, breaking the Isthmus of Corinth, invaded and devastated Morea, forcing the despot to again become a vassal of the Turks, paying tribute ^[15] .

In 1429, in connection with the weakening of the remnants of the Achaean princedom, the despot Thomas launched a military campaign against the principality, forcing Centurion II Zaccaria to agree to the marriage of his daughter Katerina to Thomas, which made the Mores despotate the heir to all the possessions of Achaea. In 1432, Centurion II died and, thus, almost the entire Peloponnese fell under the rule of Morea, with the exception of several Venetian fortresses ^{[13] [17]} .

In 1443, Theodore II abdicated the throne of the sea. In the same year, a crusade was announced against the Ottoman Turks. Under these conditions, the new despot Mystra Constantine tried to build on success and unite the whole of southern Greece under the rule of Morea. He attacked the Latin Duchy of Athens, capturing Thebes and Athens, and forced a tributary of the Turks Nerio II to take a vassal oath to the Morean despotate. After this, Constantine began to operate in the Ottoman part of Thessaly , where the despots were supported by Albanians and Vlachs ^[18] . But, in the future, success could not be developed. In 1444, the Turks defeated the Crusader Knights at the Battle of Varna . And, already, in 1446, the Ottoman sultan Murad II invaded the territory of the Duchy of Athens, putting an end to the successes of Constantine ^{[2] [19]} .

The fall of the state

Murad II approached the borders of Morea on the Isthmus of Corinth. Near the wall of Hexamilion, Konstantin managed to provide noticeable resistance to the Ottoman Turks. However, when this fortification fell, the path of the Ottomans to Morea was open. The Turks again invaded and plundered the Peloponnese, taking with them about 60 thousand prisoners ^[20] . The fate of the despotate was a foregone conclusion ^[2] .

In 1449, the despot Constantine ascended the Byzantine throne. Morea was divided between his brothers: Thomas became the ruler of Glarents, Demetrius II received Mystra. Murad’s successor, Mehmed II, the Conqueror captured Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The last emperor Constantine fell in battle. The Byzantine Empire, which at that time was Constantinople with its suburbs, ceased to exist ^[2] .

Despot Thomas Paleolog still tried to resist the Ottoman Turks and began to plan the defense of Morea, having begun to strengthen the Isthmus of Corinth. However, tension began to grow between him and his brother Demetrius II. Despot Thomas followed a pro-Western orientation, hoping for Catholic help in the fight against the Ottoman Turks, while the despot Demetrius II, on the contrary, began to support the latter. Manuel Kantakuzin , the grandson of Demetrius I, who tried to restore the power of the Kantakuzins in the Sea, played on these contradictions ^{[21] [22]} .

In 1453, Manuel rebelled against the Paleologists, with the support of about 30 thousand Albanians. Soon he was proclaimed the rebel Greeks and Albanians as a new despot ^[23] . The situation was further aggravated by the second uprising led by John Dzakkaria , the son of the last prince of Achaea. In the beginning, Cantacuzinus was successful. He controlled most of Morea. Zaccaria, meanwhile, captured the fortress of Athos, proclaiming himself the prince of Achaea ^[24] . But soon the Paleologians joined together and turned for help to the Ottoman Turks and Venice. In October 1454, the Ottoman troops under the command of Turahan Bey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Albanians. Soon, through joint efforts, the rebellion of Cantacousinus and Zaccaria was completely suppressed ^[21] .

However, the victory went to the establishment of a colossal annual tax (12 thousand gold coins), which the despots had to pay to the Sultan ^[21] . And soon, the contradictions of Thomas and Dimitry escalated, which led to new armed clashes between the brothers. Moreover, in 1456, the Duchy of Athens fell, which was a kind of buffer between Morea and the vast Ottoman possessions ^{[21] [25]} .

Meanwhile, the internecine war weakened the region so much that when Turkish troops entered the Mores despot in 1458, they were not offered resistance anywhere. Only Corinth put up noticeable resistance to the Turks and was captured on August 6 after several months of siege ^[21] . Moreover, even in the face of the Ottoman invasion, despots still did not find a way to reconciliation and continued to rob each other's possessions. On May 31, 1460, the Ottomans captured the capital of the despotate, Mistra ^[26] . After that, the sea cities opened their gates to the Sultan without resistance. Only the sea fortress Salmenik defended itself against the Turks and was taken in July 1461. Morean despotate ceased to exist. Back in June 1460, Thomas fled to Italy, while Demetrius remained in Greece and surrendered to the mercy of the Sultan ^{[21] [27]} .

The Greek Heirs of Morea

After the loss of the Morean despotate, Thomas Palaeologus, recognized throughout Christian Europe as the legal heir to the Byzantine Empire, settled in Rome. Thomas hoped to someday return to Morea and, in order to gain support in Western Europe, he converted to Catholicism. But in 1465, the Paleologist died ^[28] .

After his death, the position of the legal emperor of Byzantium and the despot Morea was inherited by his eldest son Andrei , who was born in Mystra around 1453. However, he was not destined to return to Greece. Moreover, the titular despot Morea went into debt and sold all his rights to the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella in 1502 ^[28] .

Cantacousin Dynasty

Paleolog Dynasty

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