The Siena War of 1553–1555 was the struggle of the Republic of Siena for independence with the support of France against the Imperial-Florentine forces during the Eighth Italian War .
Siena war | |||
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Main conflict: Italian war (1551–1559) | |||
Siena republic | |||
date | 1553-1555 | ||
A place | Siena republic | ||
Total | Victory of the Imperials and the Florentines | ||
Opponents | |||
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Commanders | |||
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Content
Political Environment
After the imperials defeated papal Rome and the subordination of Florence, the territory of the Republic of Siena on all sides was surrounded by the lands of the vassals of Charles V. Siena’s independence provoked the emperor’s discontent because it became a refuge for the exiles, for “all who managed to escape from the papal gallows or the Spanish chopping block” [1] . Already in 1530, a Spanish garrison was introduced into the city, and in 1550, Governor Diego de Mendoza began construction of a citadel, which was supposed to keep the Syeneans in obedience.
Residents unsuccessfully sent protests to the emperor, but the embassy, which returned in February 1551, reported that Karl had refused to listen. Desperate to achieve justice, the Siena people decided to expel the invaders with foreign support. The leader of the Sienese exiles, Giovanni Maria Benedetti, nicknamed Giromondo, a member of the expedition of Cortes and the founding of Veracruz , entered the service of the French ambassador to Rome, Cardinal de Tournon , and together with the Siena ambassador Lelio Tolomei told him that the republic wanted to stand under the patronage of France. Spanish yoke [2] .
The French commander in Parma, Paul de Terme , the ambassador to Venice, Ode de Selv , Cardinals Farnese and Ferrara [3] participated in the preparation of the uprising.
The moment was favorable, since the opponents of the Habsburgs everywhere were taking up arms. The Ottoman-Habsburg War in the Mediterranean resumed in 1551; in February 1552, the German princes revolted, expelling Charles V from imperial territory; that month, Henry II declared war on him and invaded Lorraine; in late April, the Ottoman army marched to Hungary .
Siena's Liberation
De Tournon promised support for France to the Siena, and detachments of exiles under the general command of the young Enea Piccolomini began to secretly gather in various places of the contada. By July 26, they concentrated in front of Siena in the Port of Nuova area. Lieutenant Mendoza don Francesco unsuccessfully tried to prevent an armed uprising, but on the night of the 28th, 800 young Siena men drove the Spanish soldiers out and entered the city. The residents of the San Martino Terzo supported the performance, shouting: “Francia! Francia! Libertà! Libertà! ”Soon the uprising swept the whole city, and parts of the Spaniards retreated to the Great Square, followed by a hail of stones, which the women threw at them from the windows [4] .
Despite the reinforcements of 400 people, directed by Cosimo I Medici , the Spaniards could not quell the outrage. Having retreated from the Great Square, two Thirts settled in Campanci, but the news of the approach to the city of thousands of Arquebuzir Count Pitigliano and rumors about the French movement forced them to take refuge in the citadel. Soon, French units of Cardinal Farnese entered Siena, and the total number of troops of the emperor’s opponents reached 10 thousand. [5]
Mendoza, who was in Perugia , believed that several hours would be enough to suppress the rebellion, but the forces of the rebels turned out to be very significant, and the Duke of Florence did not want to start a war, agreed to evacuate his soldiers and recognize the independence of Siena, if she continued to consider the emperor to be her patron and friend. The Spaniards had to join the agreement, and on August 5 the citadel was evacuated [6] .
The young Sienese climbed the walls to conduct the Spaniards, and Ottavio Sozzini turned to the Spanish lieutenant Don Francaise, who closed the column:
Signor don Frances, now you are my enemy, but I declare to you that you are a truly worthy knight and that, apart from what the harm would be for the republic, I, Ottavio Sozzini, will remain forever in all your friend and servant! Don Frances turned to him and looked at him for a long time with tears in his eyes. Then, turning to all Siena citizens, he said: "The brave inhabitants of Siena, you have once again accomplished a glorious feat, but beware, for you have offended a very powerful person."
- Muratov P. P. Images of Italy, p. 204
Already on July 30, the French ambassador in Rome, Señor de Lansac, arrived in Siena and entered the citadel, where he called the captain of the people elected by the Sientes, and solemnly handed him the place. In three days the inhabitants completely demolished the fortress, and the Lizza gardens were laid out in its place. Since the Sienese needed money, Lansac provided them with money for the first time [7] [8] .
Sodom paintings with images of the holy compatriots — Auzan, Catherine, and Bernardin — were hung on the fortress walls, and above the Pispini gate, an image of the Virgin Mary with the inscription “Victory and Freedom” [9] .
Management Organization
On 3 August, General de Thermes left Ferrara with the Duke di Somme , and on the 11th he arrived in Siena, where he took command of the troops and called in reinforcements. On August 16, the National Assembly decided by 344 votes to 66 to send to France the ambassadors Enea Piccolomini, Bishop Claudio Tolomei, Giulio Vieri and Niccolò Borghese. On November 25, the embassy arrived in Paris, and on December 18 it was received by the king in Compiegne . Henry II responded to the speech of the ambassadors in the Tuscan dialect , and on the 23rd issued a letter to the Siena government and people, in which he agreed to become the “patron, protector and benefactor” of the republic [10] .
Pope Julius III , mother-in-law of Siena, attempted to establish his power in Siena by appointing August 10 Fabio Miniatelli , Cardinal-prelate of San Sylvestre, as Legate a latere. On the 20th, Minyatelli solemnly entered Siena and demanded that the republic be transferred to the protection of the Holy See and withdraw the French troops. De Terme was not against formal submission to Rome, but he categorically refused to withdraw the troops. Farnese papal demands enraged, and on September 5, at a meeting with Minyatelli, he directly expressed his indignation. On October 14, having achieved nothing, the legate left Siena [11] .
In early October, Cardinal Ferrara received letters from the king stating that he was Lieutenant General of Siena, with a content of 12 thousand ecus of gold and a guard of 1,500 infantrymen. On the way from Ferrara, he was solemnly received by Cosimo Medici in Florence, and on November 1, accompanied by an escort from the Swiss, joined Siena, where Paul de Thermes handed him supreme authority [12] .
Start of War
After the conclusion of the Passau Treaty with the German princes, the emperor was able to begin the struggle against external enemies. Troops began to gather in Naples, and in January 1553 a significant imperial army commanded by the viceroy Pedro de Toledo reached Val di Chiana . The commander soon died in Florence, his son and successor Don García continued operations, plundering the area south of Siena and besieging Montalcino , where Giordano Orsini was defending [13] [14] .
The emergence of a large Turkish fleet, past the Strait of Messina and headed for Naples, forced the Imperials to lift the siege and hurry to the south [14] .
Siena received a temporary respite, but the appointment of Piero Strozzi , the French representative in the republic, the mortal enemy of Cosimo Medici, who enjoyed the support of Queen Catherine and the constable Montmorency , forced the Duke to hasten with the preparations for the war, for which he received from the emperor 4 thousand Spaniards and Germans. The duke agreed with Charles V that he would fight the war on his own, and the emperor would only provide mercenaries, the number of which by August 1554 was 24 thousand [15] [16] .
On January 7, 1554 Strozzi arrived in Siena, and on the 26th the Florentine commander, the famous condotier Gian Giacomo Medici , the Marquis di Marignano, without declaring war, invaded the republic, quickly reaching the city gates. The Siena forces immediately assembled the militia, and failed to capture the city by surprise [17] .
Marignano decided to block the city. Having devastated the neighborhood, he consistently mastered all the fortifications of the Siena kontado, cutting out all the inhabitants who were trying to resist. In order to prevent the supply of Siena, he resorted to terror, hanging on the surrounding trees all the contadini who tried to deliver supplies to the city [18] .
The taxation of the city was not yet complete, and in March the Siena managed to achieve some success. Aurelio Fregoso ambushed Chiusi's detachment of a Florentine general and nephew of Julius III Ascanio della Cornia and captain Rodolfo Baloni of 2 thousand infantry and 400 copies. In the battle of March 24, known as the “Cusian Bloody Easter”, the Siena forces killed 400 soldiers, and captured a papal nephew with a thousand people. Ballion was killed. However, in April, Marignano captured Belcaro and Monastero, blocking the way to the Maremma [18] .
Strozzi asked Heinrich to send him a lieutenant, and the king sent Blaise de Montluc, a veteran of the Italian Wars to Siena [15] .
Strozzi Plan
Henry II promised the Buildings of 3,000 infantry from Graubünden and a larger detachment of Gascon and German infantry from Piedmont . The Florentine exiles fielded 2,200 men, but the commander was worried about the lack of a sufficient number of cavalry. Thanks to Cardinal Ferrara, there was a hope of getting 1,500 riders from Parma and Mirandola [19] .
Strozzi assembled a council of war to which he invited his brother, Prior of Capua , appointed by the French admiral in the Mediterranean, Cornelio Bentivollo, commander of the infantry, and Cardinal of Ferrara. Mirandola was designated as a gathering place for graubündents, Lombards and the promised cavalry; from there the units were to follow through Parma and the Apennines to Lucca . The Germans and Gascons from Piedmont were to dive in Marseilles on the Algerian ships, and disembark in the Luccan port of Viareggio . Strozzi himself intended, at the head of the French and Italians, to slip through the enemy's order, join up with the troops in Lucca, and from there go through Pistoia and Prato to Florence. They hoped that the pistos, dissatisfied with the rule of Cosimo, would open the gates to his opponents [20] .
At the same time, the Florentine exiles, led by Bindo Altoviti from Roman territory, were to attack the Duchy of Florence from the south through Val di Chiana. The ships of the Prior of Capua were to devastate the Florentine shores in the area of Livorno , then, connecting with the Algerians, to capture Piombino and then go on to Pisa. The meeting approved the plan of action, the cardinal went to Ferrara, the prior went to the ships [21] .
Marignano expected the enemy's troops from Mirandola to go to Siena through Romagna and Perugia, and asked the governor of Lombardy, the duke and the pope to take measures to prevent them [22] .
Tuscan Campaign
On June 11, Strozzi stepped out of Siena, and on the 13th he crossed Arno. Marignano, who was awaiting his movement through Val di Chianu, rushed in pursuit late and failed to prevent the unification of enemy forces under Lucca, and then was forced to retreat, revealing the numerical superiority of the enemy. The critical moment of the campaign came: Cosimo did not have enough money, the mercenaries were dissatisfied, and hunger reigned in Florence. Everything depended on the actions of the Algerian fleet. If the pirates had landed reinforcements in time, Strozzi would have a chance, using overwhelming numerical superiority, to move rapidly towards Florence and try to master it, but the pirate commander did not want to go into the submission of foreigners and would not rush to arrive [23] .
While waiting for the Algerians, Strozzi lost time, while Marignano’s forces were reinforced by reinforcements. Upon learning that Juan de Luna was leading a large detachment from Lombardy, the marshal turned back and, crossing the Arno, arrived at Casole . There he received news that his brother was mortally wounded during the storming of a small Tuscan port of Scarlino , and the couriers who were supposed to bring a large sum of money were captured by the enemy. For three days the commander did not want to see anyone, after which he declared: “Let everything go on as usual, but as for me, I lost hope and everything that was dear to me in this world” [24] .
He moved to the Maremma, where after some time the Algerian ships approached. The Italian-French army, thinned by desertion, was reinforced by 6,000 fresh and well-equipped soldiers. Speaking to Buonconvento , the marshal united with 3 thousand. detachment Bindo Altoviti, then turned to Siena. In general, under the command of Strozzi, there were 12 detachments of Italian infantry (5-6 thousand people), three thousand French, Germans and graubyundents, and 1,200 Italian cavalrymen [25] . By that time, Marignano had already begun the siege of the city, placing the main camp in front of the Roman gates. The approach of the enemy took him by surprise, but Strozzi rejected the proposal of the majority of captains to immediately attack the enemy before he restored order [26] .
Battle of Scanagallo
Seeing that the marshal was not in a hurry to give battle, Signoria asked him to withdraw his troops from the city. On July 17, the army headed for Val di Chiana, after five days Marignano took off the camp and followed it. The army was stationed near Marciano , at a short distance from each other (about 150 steps). Strozzi had little artillery, and the terrain properties negated the superiority in cavalry. Marignano placed his artillery on the dominant heights. The skirmishes that took place in the last days of July almost always ended in failure for the Franco-Syentes [27] .
Franco Siena suffered from thirst. Deciding to take a more advantageous position, the marshal ordered to retreat five kilometers to Lucignano , but, guided by inappropriate ideas of knightly honor, produced this maneuver not covertly, under cover of night, and in broad daylight in full view of the enemy. Blaise de Monluque , who had commanded Siena in July, having learned of this disastrous decision, unsuccessfully begged him to cancel the order, just like Bentivollo and other commanders. On August 2, the army turned down the camp and began to retreat. 12 Italian units marched in the vanguard, in the center the French and the landsknechts, in the rearguard 3,000 graubyundents and 500 siens under the command of the lord de Furkievo . Marignano was following, disturbing the right flank. Stopping on a small hill Colla della Donna at the Skanagallo stream, Strozzi began to build units in battle order. Cornelio Bentivollo, the commander of the cavalry, offered to sacrifice his units to cover the retreat of the infantry, but the marshal replied: "Let the one who fears flee, but I intend to fight" [28] [29] .
The battle began with a cavalry imperial attack. The standard-bearer of the allied Italian cavalry fled, barely entering combat contact with the enemy, and carried the rest with him. This betrayal decided the outcome of the battle, although the Struts, gathering infantry around themselves, tried to turn the tide by undertaking a desperate attack. The Florentine exiles under the green banner with the Dante motto “I seek freedom, for it is dear to me,” fought extremely hard, and the graubyunders and the Siena infantry held back the pressure of the Spaniards, Italian mercenaries and 200 heavily-armed riders Marcantonio Colonna and Federigo Gonzagi for two hours and didn’t see more overthrown in fierce hand-to-hand combat. They were followed by three Spanish Tersio Juan de Luna, and parts of the Count di Santafiore (2 regiments of Germans and 4500 Italians) [30] [29] [31] .
The rout was complete. Five thousand corpses of the French, Germans and Siena were left lying on the banks of the Chiana and on the way to Lucignano, thousands of others were injured or captured. The winners got all the banners. The seriously wounded Strozzi took refuge in Montalcino, and the remnants of the defeated army returned to Siena [32] .
Siege of Siena
The siege of Siena resumed. Wealthy citizens were ready to negotiate with the enemy, but the majority of the people decided to resist to the last possible. The members of the Signoria decided that they would rather destroy their children than they would surrender the city of Cosimo [33] .
The horrors of the siege and the desperate courage of the defenders are described in detail in the diary of Alessandro Sozzini and the notes of Marshal Montluc.
To last longer, it was decided to get rid of extra mouths. This task was entrusted to a committee of four citizens, which took up the expulsion of Siena peasant families who tried to hide in the city from the war. One autumn evening, 250 children less than ten years old were exposed from the city, who lived at the Santa Maria della Scala Hospital, accompanied by women and a small guard. A mile from the town, the procession fell into a Spanish ambush, and the soldiers massacred some of the children and women. The survivors returned under the walls of the city, where they slowly died for several days [34] .
According to Sozzini, “this spectacle would even bring Nero to tears. I would pay 25 a scare to not see it. For three days I could neither eat nor drink ” [34] .
All residents, without distinction of classes, worked on the construction of fortifications, or demolished houses that interfered with the actions of artillery.
All these poor townspeople, without showing any displeasure or regret for the destruction of their homes, were the first to go to work. Everyone helped as he could. There have never been less than four thousand of them at work, and among them I was shown many noble Siena ladies who wore earth in baskets on their heads. O ladies of Siena, as long as Monlyuk’s book is alive, I must perpetuate you, for truly you are worthy of immortal praise, hardly ever deserved by women! As soon as this people made a wonderful decision to defend their freedom, all the city ladies divided into three groups. The first commanded signora Forteguerra, dressed in purple, as well as those who were with her, and their dresses were short, like a nymph. The second was Signora Picolomini, dressed in a scarlet satin, and her entire party too; the third was signor Livia Faust in white, and those who followed her carried the white banner. They had glorious slogans on the banners; I would give much to remember them. These three detachments consisted of three thousand ladies, noble or urban class, armed with lances, hooks and fascines. And in this form, they went to the review and went to the tab of the fortifications. Monsieur de Thermes , who was at the beginning of the siege and saw them, told me this, saying that he had never seen anything as beautiful. I saw their banners myself later. They put down a song in honor of France, which they sang when they went to the fortifications. I would give my best horse to know this song and bring it here.
- Blaise de Montluc . Notes. Quoted by: Muratov P. P. Images of Italy, p. 205
Marignano, who received the sanction of the emperor and the duke, decided to subdue Siena by a hungry blockade, hanging all those who tried to deliver food to the city, and ordering anyone who tried to leave Siena to be brought to death. The corresponding proclamation was issued on October 4. According to the chronicler, the surrounding trees were covered with hanging like leaves. Trees in the forest on the banks of Tressa were bent under the weight of many corpses, and contemporaries called this place "the emperor's orchard" [35] .
The city experienced the usual disasters of a long siege, when cats, mice, rats, and grass growing on ramparts went to eat. More and more extra mouths were expelled from the city to certain death, because the besiegers did not let these people through their posts [35] .
The Allies could not help Siena, and in February, Signoria, with the consent of Henry II, entered into negotiations with Cosimo, trying to articulate the preservation of autonomy. The duke was adamant and demanded complete subordination [36] .
Disasters besieged caused pity even the enemy. Once, when another party of bocche disutili , consisting of 400 women and children, was expelled from the city, the Spanish soldiers violated the order, and escorted them to the Observatory monastery, giving some bread [36] .
Marignano was not a monster, and twice showed gallantry. Once he sent a mule to the city with flasks of Greek wine - a gift from Monluca from Cardinal Armagnac. The noble soldier gave half to the Siena women, the rest he shared with his people, sending several Strozzi flasks. During the carnival, the Florentine general sent Montluke a roe, four birds with one stone, four pairs of poultry and other snacks so that he could have a feast [37] .
Hunger and epidemic devastated the city. The food ration for soldiers and civilians by the end of the siege did not exceed eight ounces of bread per day (about 250 grams) [38] . The last hopes of the inhabitants were connected with the Most Holy Virgin, who was considered the patroness of Siena, but solemn processions, divine services and collective prayers did not save the city from the siege. The pity of the Spaniards also did not last long: a new batch of extra mouths, which left the city at the end of March, was returned under its walls with their noses and ears cut off and the message that the next group would certainly hang [37] .
Surrender. Exodus of the Patriots
In the end, courage left even the bravest, and the people agreed to surrender. Strozzi tried to support the spirit of the besieged by false news that the French army was on its way, or even landed in Italy, but no one believed him. On April 17, the conditions were agreed with the representatives of the emperor. Siena surrendered under the patronage of Charles V, who promised to restore her independence. A new government was appointed, a garrison was introduced into the city, but the winners undertook not to restore the citadel and not to build a new one without the consent of the republic. Residents retained civil and property rights. The French garrison left the city with military honors [39] .
April 21, the French left Siena. They left a large number of notable citizens, representatives of the Bandini, Spannokki, Piccolomini and Tolomei families, who did not want to serve the conquerors and declared that Ubi cives, ibi patria . Having transferred the capital to Montalcino, they maintained the Sienna statehood tradition for several years. The way there was difficult, because the people were very weak from hunger, not everyone survived the transition, and the convoy arrived at the scene, leaving many corpses along the way [40] .
Marignano met Montluc three hundred paces outside the Roman gates, and exchanged courtesies with him, after which he entered the conquered city. During the year of the blockade, Siena became very deserted: out of 40 thousand people, only eight remained [41] .
End of the Republic of Siena
Henry II was very upset by the loss of such an important strategic point, and in 1556 he sent Francois de Guise to win positions in Central Italy. The expedition ended in complete failure, after which only Montalcino, Grosseto , Chiusi, Radicofani and several small fortresses remained in the hands of the French in the region [42] .
Another intervention by the French allowed Cosimo to cancel the contract with the Siena. Philip II , busy with the war in Flanders, despite the strong discontent, was forced to agree to the demands of an ally, transferring to him the territory of the Republic of Siena in payment of Spain’s debts. July 15, 1557 Cosimo became the lord of the city. In order to maintain his position in Tuscany, Philip annexed a small part of the coast to the Neapolitan kingdom , known as the Region of Presidencies [43] .
The Siena Republic in Montalcino lasted under the French protectorate until the signing of the Kato-Kambreziysky world in 1559, after which its inhabitants were also forced to submit to the duke, who seized almost all of Tuscany (except Presidents and Lucca ). In February 1570, his new status was officially secured by the Bull of Pius V , who elevated Cosimo to the dignity of the Grand Duke of Tuscany [43] .
Pavel Muratov summed up the existence of an independent Siena in several phrases:
Siena was always poorer in thought than Florence, but richer in feeling. (...) This city, with its feminine penchant for beauty and inability to political thought, with its faith that Mary’s intercession is stronger than the army bought by Florentine gold, seemed to have died long ago. But the freedom of Siena survived the freedom of Florence. She was saved by the endless and fiery love of these impressionable, frivolous and subtle feelings of people to their hometown — a great love that knew neither betrayal, nor apostasy, which stopped all discord in a moment of danger, which caused Provenzano Salvani to die on the battlefield and inspire the lion's people bravery during the spanish siege. The words of this love sounded in the sermon of St. Bernardin, addressed to the forty-thousand crowd at the Siena Campo. Her voice is still heard in everything that was created by the artists of Siena for the three centuries of its free existence.
- Muratov P. P. Images of Italy, p. 187
Notes
- ↑ Muratov, 1994 , p. 206.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 205.
- ↑ Romier, 1913 , p. 322.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 206.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 207.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 207–208.
- ↑ Romier, 1913 , p. 323.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 208–209.
- ↑ Cantù, 1861 , p. 31.
- ↑ Romier, 1913 , p. 324–327.
- ↑ Romier, 1913 , p. 328-330.
- ↑ Romier, 1913 , p. 332–333.
- ↑ Cantù, 1861 , p. 32.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 212.
- ↑ 1 2 Cantù, 1861 , p. 35
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 212-213.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 213-214.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 215.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 216.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 216-217.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 217.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 218.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 218-221.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 221.
- ↑ Hardy, 1880 , p. 346.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 221–222.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 224-225.
- ↑ Hardy, 1880 , p. 347.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 225–226.
- ↑ Hardy, 1880 , p. 348.
- ↑ Muratov, 1994 , p. 204–205.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 226–227.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 228.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 229.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 233.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 235.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 236.
- ↑ Normand, 1897 , p. 81.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 237.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 237–238.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 238.
- ↑ Douglas, 1914 , p. 239.
- ↑ 1 2 Douglas, 1914 , p. 240
Literature
- Cantù C. Histoire des Italiens. T. viii. - P .: Firmin Didot frères, fils et Cie, 1861.
- Commentaires et lettres de Blaise de Monluc, maréchal de France. T. I — II. - P .: Jules Renoird, 1866
- Douglas RL Histoire de Sienne. TI - P .: H. Laurens, 1914.
- Hardy E. Etudes militaires historiques. Les Français en Italie de 1494 à 1559. - P .: J. Dumaine, 1880.
- Normand Ch. Monluc. - P .: H. Laurens, 1897.
- Romier L. Henri II et l'Italie (1547–1555): d'après des documents originaux inédits. - P .: Perrin, 1913.
- Sozzini AD Diario delle cose avvenute in Siena dai 20 luglio 1550 ai 28 giugno 1555. - Firenze: Gio Pietro Vieusseux, 1842 [1]
- Muratov P. P. Images of Italy. - M .: Respublika, 1994. - ISBN 5-250-02261-8 .