Siege of Amoria

In 827, the Arab conquest of Sicily began and during the reign of Emperor Theophilos (829–842) events developed unfavorably for Byzantium. In 830, fleets from Arab Spain and North Africa arrived on the island . The Arabs were able to agree to join forces and achieve some success, but then an epidemic began in their ranks. The Byzantines went on the offensive and the remnants of the Arabs retreated to Spain ^[1] . At the same time, another part of the Arabs besieged Palermo and in August-September 831 the city fell ^[2] . In the next two years of active hostilities on the island was not conducted ^[3] . In the years 834–835, the commander Abu Fihr inflicted a number of defeats on the Byzantines, but as a result of the rebellion he was killed. In the fall of 835, the Arabs succeeded under the command of ibn Yakub , and in September Abu l-Aglab Ibrahim ibn Abdallah ibn al-Aglab, cousin of the Aglabid ruler Ziyadet-Allah I (817-838) led the Arab army in Sicily. Under him continued attacks on the Greek regions of the island, continued persistent attempts to capture the well-fortified city of Castrojovanni . In winter, the Arabs were able to capture this city along with rich prey ^[4] . In 837, Theophilus decided to start hostilities on the eastern border, having for this alliance with the head of the Iranian Hurramites rebelled against the Arabs Babek . By this time, the Hurramites were in a difficult situation, besieged in the fortress of Albudd. Counting on the fact that the caliphate’s army, distracted by the fight against Babek, would not show any serious resistance, Theophilus, at the head of a hundred thousandth army, invaded the Arab caliphate . In the Byzantine army, including the Persians- defeated in 834 ^[5] . Based on data from Arab sources, this estimate includes 70,000 soldiers and 30,000 service personnel. This corresponds to the data of the American Byzantinist about the size of the Byzantine army in Asia Minor at that time: 88,000 soldiers ( 50,000 soldiers of Asian femi , 14,000 Khurramites and 24,000 tagma troops) and 24,000 servants ^[6] . Thus, the formed army was the largest that Byzantium put on the battlefield over the past few centuries ^[7] .

The first target of the Byzantines was planned by Melitena , whose troops defeated Byzantium in 835, but after passing through the mountains the emperor went to the fortress Zapetra ( Σωζόπετρα, Ζιζόατρα, Ζάπετρα ) located in the vicinity of modern Turkey , located 56 km southwest Viranshehir . Theophilus took and burned the Zapetra, which, according to the Byzantine chronicler Continuer Theophanes , was the birthplace of Caliph Al-Mutasim ^[9] . The male part of the Muslim population was killed, women and children were taken prisoner, their eyes were gouged out, and their ears and noses were cut off. Sources say that the Christians of Petra, whose property was looted, also suffered. Then the Byzantines plundered the region of Melitene, also capturing prisoners, and besieged Arsamosatu . Since most of the Arab troops were diverted to fight Babek, the city was captured and about 4,000 Arabs were killed on the battlefield. After this, Theophilus devastated the part of Armenia adjacent to the north to Arsamosat, seeking tribute. This goal was achieved, and the ruler of Sispirite recognized the power of Byzantium ^[7] . Then Theophilos returned to Melitene, whose inhabitants preferred to buy off the Byzantines with gifts, returning the Greeks captured two years ago and issuing about 1,000 hostages. Given the strength of the fortifications of the city, the emperor was satisfied with this. Having ordered the prisoners to cut off ears and noses, he released them ^[10] . After this, the emperor solemnly returned to Constantinople , where, in memory of the victory, he ordered the construction of the palace to be started, gardens to be built and water supply to be built ^[11] . The victory and the triumph arranged in her honor made it possible to forget about a number of previous defeats. In connection with the subordination of Sispirite, the Black Sea ducat Chaldia was transformed into a fairy - this was to give greater authority to the Byzantine commander in the region. The Byzantine campaign did not lead to an improvement in the situation of Babek, who was captured by the Arabs in September 837. As a result, his followers, of whom there were about 16,000 , following the example of the Khurramites, fled to Byzantium; their integration into the Byzantine army was entrusted to the Khurramite Feofob ^[12] . Further, not caring about the possible consequences in the east, Theophilus decided to focus on the campaign in Sicily and the religious problems associated with his iconoclastic policy ^[13] .

According to Arab sources, when crowds of refugees from the ruined Zapetra reached the Caliph's residence in Samarra , Al-Mutasim jumped on his horse and wanted to go on a hike right away. However, this was not possible while Babek continued to resist, so he only sent a part of the army under the command of and Muhammad Kutah to help the population of Zapetra. When the Arab army arrived at Zapetra, the Byzantines had already left. At the end of 837, Babek was defeated by the commander ^[14] , and at the beginning of 838 the Arabs made a small raid. However, the capture of a small number of prisoners and livestock could not satisfy their desire for revenge ^[12] .

Anzen and Ankira

After defeating Babek, Al-Mutasim returned to the idea of ​​revenge on the Byzantines. According to the Arab historian at-Tabari , the Caliph turned to his advisers with the question "Which of the Greek fortresses is the most inaccessible and best." He was told that it was Amoriy , because “none of the Muslims has been in it since the advent of Islam ; she is the eye and foundation of Christianity ; among the Greeks it is more honorable than Constantinople . " According to the position of the stars, astrologers predicted the failure of the campaign, to which the caliph did not pay attention. Al-Mutasim set out on a campaign in April 838 with enormous forces, according to al-Tabari - unprecedented. The Arab historian al-Masudi gives estimates from 200 to 500 thousand people, and this version is accepted by A. A. Vasiliev ^[15] ; U. Tredgold considers a more realistic estimate of Michael the Syrian to 80,000 people ^[16] . At the head of the vanguard were the Turks and Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Mus'aba, the right wing was commanded by the Turks Itah , the left was Jafar ibn Dinar ibn Abdallah al-Hayat, in the center was Ujayf ibn Abbas . On the banners, by the order of Mutashim, the inscription "Amoriy" was made. The army stopped a day's journey from Tarsus at the place where the exchange of prisoners between the Byzantines and Arabs usually took place. In the meantime, Theophilus stepped out of Constantinople and stopped at three days' journey from Amorius. His army consisted of cavalry tagma under the command of the domestic of the schol , the Persians of Theophobes and, possibly, the feminine army of Thrace and Macedonia , who were not threatened by the invasion at that time. The strength of the Arab army, which the Greeks became aware of, made many advise the emperor to relocate the inhabitants of Amoria to a safe place in order to avoid unnecessary casualties, this could also force the Arabs to abandon their plans and eliminate the need for separation of the troops. But Theophilus, considering this unworthy and cowardly, decided to fortify the city, entrusting its protection to the experienced commander Aetius, the stratigue of the Anatoly themes . In addition, a detachment of excavators was sent under the command of the eunuch Theodore Kratir and Patrician Theophilus Vavutchik ^[17] . The emperor’s conviction of victory was connected with the religious situation in the country - the truth of the iconoclasm defended by Theophilos was to be revealed not only in confessional disputes, but also on the battlefield. Theophilus took a position that allows you to control the road from the Cilician Gate to Ankira , possibly at its intersection with the Galis River. After sending about half of the army to Amory, he had about 40,000 soldiers left. It is also possible that here he was joined by troops of neighboring fems of Bukelaria , Paflagonia and Armeniac ^[18] .

Although Al-Mutasim was indeed about to cross the Cilician Gate along the road, his plan was more complicated than Theophilus imagined. Desiring to attack from several sides, the caliph divided his army into two parts, and sent a smaller one ( 30,000 people, including 10,000 Turks and the entire army of Arab Armenia ) under the command of Afshin Haidar ibn Kavus to the city of Seruj . He crossed Antitavr in the middle of June 838 and there he waited for the appointed day to cross the border with Byzantium. There, according to the assumption of A. Vasiliev , the Armenian troops and the Melitian emir joined him. The combined unit stopped in the Dazimon Valley near the modern city of Tokat . The second part of the Arab army, led by the caliph and Ashnas, as the Byzantines expected, went through the Cilician gate to Ankira , after the capture of which they had to move to Amor. On June 19, Ashnas received orders to advance with the vanguard to the city of Safsafu , and Mutasim himself also spoke on the 21st ^[19] . At this time, the Arabs became aware that the Byzantine army was on the other side of the border river , in the place where usually took place, and was about to make an unexpected attack. In view of this, Mutasim ordered Ashnas not to advance further, but to wait for the arrival of the rearguard with a convoy, stone-throwing machines and provisions. Three days later, Ashnas received a new order - to capture prisoners and find out information about the emperor and his army. This task was completed, as a result of which the Arabs became aware of the exact location of the Byzantine army and the plans of the commander of the fortress of Kurra to ambush the mountains. It also became known that Feofil recently received information that Afshin’s army was moving from the side of the Armeniac theme, after which he made one detachment towards him. The rest of the army was left under the command of a relative of the emperor. This information was immediately reported to Mutashim, who ordered the messenger to be sent to Afshin, but it was already too late ^[20] . On July 22, at the rock of Anzen ( dr. Greek дрνζήν ) west of Tokat, a battle took place in which, apart from the emperor Theophilos, Byzantium was commanded by Persians Theophobe and . The battle at the beginning was successful for the Byzantines, but then the Arabian cavalry took them to flight ^[21] . Having reached Lyamis, the soldiers learned that the army left by Theophilos had dispersed, not wanting to obey his relative. The remains of the Byzantine army gathered in the area of ​​Chiliok, north of Amasia ^[22] . On July 27, Manuil the Armenian died of wounds received under Anzen ^[23] .

At this time, Ashnas received the supplies that arrived with the rearguard and moved forward. Mutashim followed him a day's journey. Three days away from Ankira , Ashnas learned from the prisoners that there were a large number of refugees with supplies nearby. with 500 soldiers was sent to search for them, and Ashnas himself moved to Ankira, which at that time represented a well-fortified fortress. However, the city was abandoned by residents who learned about the defeat of Theophilus . At Ankira, Malik met with Ashnas, and the next day Mutasim arrived there. A few days later Afshin joined them, after which Ankira was captured and destroyed ^[24] .

The siege and fall of Amoria

Soon Theophilos received news from his stepmother Euphrosyne that deserters who had reached the capital spread rumors of his death and that the people were going to elect a new emperor. Theophilus urgently went to Constantinople, where by his appearance and execution of several conspirators he stopped the troubles. Meanwhile, in his absence in Asia Minor, the Persian part of the army rebelled, proclaiming Theophobe as their emperor. Although the latter made no attempt to extend his power further than Paphlagonia , he had at his disposal up to 30,000 troops, and his possible union with the Arabs represented a real danger to Theophilos ^[23] . All this made a heavy impression on the emperor. He lost heart and sent ambassadors to the caliph Mutasim with humiliated explanations and promises. Theophilos stated that when Captain Zapetra was captured, his commanders exceeded his orders, he promised to rebuild the ruined city at his own expense, to give out to the caliph not only the captive inhabitants of Zapetra, but also all the captured Arabs and even their people who had committed atrocities during the capture of the city. Mutasim did not pay attention to the emperor’s requests and, laughing at Theophilus’ cowardice, kept the ambassadors until the siege of Amorius was completed. The army of Arabs moved to Amorius in three columns: in the center was Mutasim himself, the left column was led by Ashnas , the right by Afshin . An order was given to capture all without distinction of sex and age, to destroy and burn all the villages. Seven days later, the first convoy approached Amoria, and after another three days the entire Arab army was at the walls of the city ^[25] . Chronology of movements of parts of the Arab army leads at-Tabari. Given that there are approximately 180 miles from Anzen to Ankira, and another 100 miles from Ankira to Amoria, this gives an average army speed of 30 miles per day ^[26] .

At this time, Amorius was experiencing the period of its highest prosperity and was a strong fortress with 44 towers. The siege began on August 1, 838. At first, the Arabs did not achieve much success, and both sides suffered significant losses. According to sources, a turning point during the siege occurred after the traitor - a Muslim who had been baptized and married earlier by the Byzantines - indicated to the Arabs a place where the city wall could be easily broken. Indeed, as a result of the attack at the indicated location, the wall was destroyed. The commanders of the defenders of the city of Aetius and the eunuch Theodore sent a letter to the emperor informing them of the destruction of the wall, the large number of troops surrounding the city and their intention to break through the enemy ranks at night and head for the emperor. For transmission to Theophilus, the letter was handed to two persons, a Greek slave and a certain person who spoke Arabic. Leaving the city, they were captured by the Arabs and suspected of spying. During their search, a letter was found. After reading the letter, the Caliph awarded money to the sent Greeks who agreed to convert to Islam . The next morning, dressing them in rich clothes, he ordered them to be passed by the walls of Amoria so that Aetius could see them. After that, the Arabs organized pickets around the city. Then Mutasim ordered the construction of ballista, which were put on the platform, under which there were wagons. To eliminate the urban moat, each soldier was given a ram, which had to be eaten, and the skin filled with earth and thrown into the moat. However, in this way, due to stones thrown from the city walls, the moat could not be removed ^[27] . Despite this, Mutasim ordered the siege towers to be moved forward, however one of them was lost, and thus the first assault attempt was unsuccessful. The next day, Mutashim ordered a new assault. The first day, when the troops of Ashnas went on the assault, did not give decisive results. The next day, Afshin’s troops entered the battle, and their actions aroused greater approval of the caliph, and in this regard, at-Tabari cites a story showing that at that time there was no unity in the Arab army, and that there was a conspiracy to overthrow Mutashim in favor his nephew ^[28] . On the third day, Mutashima’s troops went into battle. All these days there were heavy battles in the breach of the wall and, according to at-Tabari, they suffered heavy losses. Wendu, who was in charge of the defense at this place, asked Aetius for help, but was refused. After this, Wendu entered into negotiations with Mutashim for surrender, as a result of which the passage to the city was opened and the Arabs freely entered the city ^[29] .

Some Greeks rushed to a large church in the Amory monastery, where they burned down after stubborn resistance. The rest, under the command of Aetius, locked themselves in a tower. After short negotiations, Aetius laid down his arms. According to at-Tabari, the siege lasted 55 days - according to the calculations of A. A. Vasiliev, this gives September 24, 838. According to the Russian historian, other sources that give fewer days of siege are less reliable ^[30] .

In Amoria, the Arabs captured a huge number of prisoners of war, including military commanders and major officials. Many churches were plundered and destroyed, whose ministers were also taken prisoner. Of the total city population of approximately 70,000, approximately 30,000 were killed ^[31] . By order of the caliph, after separation from the total mass of captives of the noble and wealthy Greeks, the remaining were divided between the four military leaders. Distribution of production took five days, the rest was burned. The walls and gates of Amoria were destroyed. Only after that were the emissaries captured before the siege released to the emperor. Then, desiring to continue the campaign, Mutasim decided to move towards the Byzantine army. During the transition, some of the prisoners refused to go further and were killed, and some of the remaining attacked the soldiers and fled. Upon learning of this, Mutasim ordered the execution of 6,000 people. ^[32] The brilliant success that accompanied the campaign of 838 could encourage Mutashim to move further against King Theophilos, but because of the rebellion of Abbas, he decided to return. Наряду с огромной добычей он привёл с собой множество пленных, в числе которых были высшие византийские сановники, в том числе патрикий Аэций, протоспафарий Феодор Кратир и родственник его супруги друнгарий Константин Вавуцик . Все пленники были приведены в Багдад и поселены в построенной Мутасимом столице халифата Самарре на реке Тигр , где они находились в заключении. Поскольку переговоры об их освобождении закончились безрезультатно, пленники в 846 году ^[33] .

В результате поражения 838 года Феофил принял решение организовать европейскую коалицию против Аббасидов. Для этого он вступил в переговоры с западным императором Людовиком Благочестивым , с дожем Венеции Пьетро Традонико и с испанским калифом Абд ар-Рахманом II из династии Омейядов . Прежде всего византийское посольство патрикия Феодосия появилось в конце 838 года в Венеции . Феодосий убедил венецианцев отправить флот против сицилийских арабов, начавших завоевания в Южной Италии . Эта экспедиция не имела успеха, так как венецианский флот был разбит арабами. Пробыв в Венеции около года, патрикий Феодосии 17 июня 839 года был принят германским императором в Ингельгейме , где вел переговоры об отправке флота в Африку с целью отвлечения сил Мутасима. Это посольство не привело ни к каким военным или политическим последствиям. Результатом переговоров в Испании стало ответное посольство, которое было принято в Константинополе . Через него Абд ар-Рахман II дал обещание снарядить флот, как только внутриполитическая обстановка в Испании позволит сделать это ^[34] . Не исключено, что заговор Аббаса также поддерживал Феофил ^[35] . Несмотря на сделанные попытки привлечь к борьбе против Багдадского калифата государства Западной Европы, положение дел на восточной границе осталось весьма неудовлетворительным. Вообще, внешняя политика Феофила по отношению к арабам была одинаково неудачна и на Западе, и на Востоке. На обоих направлениях к середине IX века они получили перевес и теснили империю в её исконных владениях. Проникновение же арабов в самый центр малоазийских владений Византии нарушило систему военной обороны. Центр фемы Анатолика был временно перенесён в . Поэтому Феофил пошёл на выплату громадной суммы в 2400 фунтов золота, чтобы получить от арабов почётный мир и выкупить всех пленников, однако халиф поставил такие оскорбительные условия, на которые Феофил не мог согласиться. Таким образом, мир не был заключен и война продолжалась, хотя и менее интенсивно. Некоторым удовлетворением для самолюбия греков было то, что византийский флот произвёл удачное нападение на Антиохию , а сухопутное войско опустошило арабские владения от Мелитены до Мараша ^[36] . В целом, по мнению У. Тредголда , потеря Амория не была катастрофой в военном отношении, и её единственным долговременным следствием стала идея о том, что иконоборчество не обеспечивает достаточной божественной поддержки, что и привело к отказу от этой идеологии в 843 году ^[37] .

Sources

• Продолжатель Феофана . Жизнеописания византийских царей / изд подготовил Любарский Я. Н. . — 2 изд.. — Спб.: Алетейя, 2009. — 400 с. — (Византийская библиотека. Источники). — ISBN 978-5-91419-146-4 .

Research

• Treadgold W. The Byzantine Revival 780-842. — Stanford University Press, 1988. — 504 p. — ISBN 0-8047-1462-2 .
• Васильев А. А. Византия и арабы. Политические отношения Византии и арабов за время Аморийской династии. - SPb. , 1900. — 183 с.
• Успенский Ф. И. История Византийской империи. — Л. , 1927. — Т. II, первая половина. — 358 с.