Civil protests in Syria (2011)

In 2006/2007, Syria’s agriculture was subjected to an unprecedented drought persisting over the next three years ^{[K 1]} , the impact of which was aggravated by the Syrian authorities ’many-year policy to stimulate agricultural production, which led to depletion of water resources and land desertification . Already in the first year of drought, agricultural enterprises in the north-eastern regions, which supplied grain to the whole country and provided two-thirds of Syria’s agricultural production, collapsed. The share of agriculture in Syria's GDP fell from 25% (2003) to 17% (2008). In 2008, for the first time since the mid-1990s, the government had to make large purchases of wheat abroad. In one year, the prices of wheat, rice, and fodder more than doubled. The production volumes of small and medium farmers and herders fell to zero. By February 2010, due to drought and the continuing increase in feed prices, almost all the livestock was destroyed ^[7] .

Bashar Assad, who replaced his father at the presidency in 2000, among other measures to weaken state regulation and liberalize the economy, reduced subsidies to agricultural producers for the purchase of fuel and food. Despite the onset of drought, this decision was not reversed, which further aggravated the situation in agriculture ^{[7] [8]} .

Already in 2009, the UN and the Red Cross reported that as a result of drought in Syria, about 800 thousand people lost their livelihoods, and in 2010, according to the UN, up to a million people were on the verge of starvation ^[9] .

The population of rural areas, unable to withstand the protracted severe drought, has endeavored en masse to the cities — Damascus, Aleppo, Deir ez-Zor, and others. ^[9]

The number of Syrians who were forced to leave their places of residence due to drought is estimated at 1.5 million. Most migrated to the outskirts of cities that were already strained due to excessive demographic growth (∼2.5% per year) and an influx Iraqi refugees (1.2–1.5 million for the period from 2003 to 2007). By 2010, internally displaced persons and Iraqi refugees made up about 20% of the urban population of Syria. If in 2002 the urban population of Syria numbered 8.9 million, by the end of 2010 it increased to 13.8 million, that is, more than one and a half times ^[7] . Some sources believe that the excessive growth of the urban population in no small measure contributed to the emergence of the internal Syrian conflict ^[9] .

It was precisely the population, to the mercy of fate, of the rapidly expanding margins of the Syrian cities, with their illegal settlements, overcrowding, poor infrastructure, high unemployment and crime, turned into a hotbed of protest sentiments. Thus, internal migration caused by the severe long-term drought exacerbated the impact of a number of other factors that contributed to the growth of popular discontent — unemployment, corruption, and depressing social inequality, combined with the consequences of ill-conceived economic policies and wasteful use of available resources, as well as slow and inefficient emergency response of the Assad regime ^[7] .

A number of sources indicate that the “ Arab Spring ” (the fall of the ruling regimes in Egypt and Tunisia), with its revolutionary influence, only initiated civilian protests, the root causes of which were rooted in such chronic problems of Syria as public dissatisfaction with the socio-political system and the authoritarian rule of Al-Assad in particular and the dominance of the representatives of the Alawite confessional minority (approx. 12% of the population) in power and military structures as a whole, the state of emergency that persisted from 1 963 years, repression and omnipotence of the special services, lack of freedom of speech and other personal freedoms, concentration of all power in the hands of the country's president and top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party ( BAAS ) with the ban of independent political parties, economic and political corruption, religious contradictions, the Kurdish problem and others ^{[10] [11]} .

The first anti-government demonstrations in Syria began on January 26, 2011, and were mostly unorganized.

On January 26, a certain Hasan Ali Akla committed self-immolation in the city of Hasakah . A similar act of public self-immolation, committed on December 17, 2010 in Tunisia by Mohammed Bouazizi , was considered by many as an event that triggered the onset of the “Arab Spring”. The action of Hassan Ali Akl was also called “a protest against the Syrian authorities”, which led to a confrontation in Syria ^[12] .

A new group called “Syrian Revolution 2011” appeared in the social networking site Facebook, calling for the Day of Wrath to be held in major cities of Syria against President Bashar al-Assad. The first political flash mob, scheduled for Wednesday, February 4th, did not take place. On Al-Jazeera , this was explained both by the increased security measures on the eve of possible events and the relative popularity of the head of state and the ruling party in comparison with other Arab countries. Assad himself stated with confidence that his country had “immunity” against democratic uprisings that led to the collapse of the Tunisian and Egyptian ruling regimes ^{[11] [12] [13]} . On February 17, a spontaneous demonstration against police violence was held in Damascus, but its members were quickly dispersed by the security forces ^[12] .

On February 23, the Syrian parliament overwhelmingly rejected a proposal by one of the deputies to revise the current laws on the state of emergency.

On March 7, 13 political prisoners from the central Damascus prison went on a hunger strike to protest against “political arrests and oppression” ^[14] .

On March 10, dozens of Syrian Kurds also went on a hunger strike in solidarity with their demands ^{[12] [15]} .

On March 12, thousands of Syrian Kurds took part in protests in the cities of Kamyshly and Al-Hasak in memory of 30 Kurds killed by the police during the riots in March 2004 ^[16] .

On March 15, the “Day of Wrath”, many hundreds of people responded to the appeals on social networks and took to the streets in Damascus , Aleppo , Deir ez-Zor , Hasakah , Dar'a , Hama . These were the first protests of this magnitude since the 1980s. The protesters demanded an end to the state of emergency in force since 1963, the release of political prisoners, the restoration of personal, political and economic freedoms, and the elimination of corruption. Anti-government demonstrations culminated in clashes with police and arrests of participants ^{[4] [16] [17]} . Authorities responded to current events with vague promises of reform, while stating that unrest on the streets of Syrian cities was the work of "external forces" and anonymous "provocateurs" and "instigators" who are trying to "create chaos and unrest, causing damage to public and private property" ^{[18] [19]} .

On March 16, in Damascus, security forces armed with clubs and supporters of the authorities dispersed the participants of the protest rally in Marge Square, near the Syrian Interior Ministry building, demanding the release of political prisoners ^{[12] [16] [20] [21] [22]} . As noted in the media, the protesters were coordinated through social networks and the website of the human rights organization Syrian Observatory for Human Rights ^[23] . In the meantime, Syrian political émigrés have announced plans for actions at Syrian offices in the United States and Europe in support of anti-government protests in Syria itself ^[24] .

On March 18, anti-government demonstrations and clashes with security forces took place in Damascus , Deir-ez-Zor , Kameshly , Homs , Baniyas . The protesters demanded the release of political prisoners, the abolition of the state of emergency, civil liberties, and the suppression of the total corruption of government officials ^[19] .

On the same day, an uprising broke out in Dar'a , in the south-west of Syria, on the border with Jordan ^[25] . The reason for unrest in Dar'a was the detention by the security service of a group of teenage students who painted the walls of houses and fences with anti-government slogans ^[26] . March 18, when, after Friday prayers, relatives of the detainees came to the police station to demand their release, security forces opened fire on them and several people were killed ^{[27] [28]} . Their funeral became a pretext for new unrest ^[29] . The organization of protests in Dar'a was undertaken by members of the Muslim Brotherhood organization banned in Syria, grouped around the imam of al-Omari mosque. On March 20, a mob set fire to the Baath Party’s ruling party’s office, the palace of justice and several police stations and smashed two offices of telecommunications companies, including the Siriatel company, owned by big businessman Rami Makhlyuf, the president’s cousin. Security forces re-opened fire on the crowd ^[6] .

On the roads leading to the city, as well as in the city itself, army and police checkpoints were established. On March 22, police opened fire on columns of protesters heading for Daria to join the protesters. Unrest spread to neighboring Dar'a settlements ^[30] .

On the night of March 23, security forces after storming reinforcements stormed the mosque of Al-Omari. Tear gas was used against protesters at al-Omari mosque ^[31] . Syrian state television demonstrated stocks of weapons that were allegedly discovered inside the mosque during the assault — firearms, grenades, ammunition ^[32] . According to media reports, referring to representatives of the protesters, 15 people were killed in clashes with the police on this day ^[30] . During the day, it was officially announced on the state television channel that Bashar Asad had dismissed the governor of the province ^[33] .

On March 25, a group calling itself the “Revolution in Syria 2011” posted on Facebook a call for a “popular uprising” throughout Syria. On this day, after Friday prayers , mass protests were held across the country ^[6] . The most numerous protests against the actions of the authorities took place in Dar'a, where up to 100 thousand people took to the streets to participate in funeral processions. After gathering on the square in front of the provincial administration building after the funeral, the protesters burned a poster of Bashar Assad, then threw down, smashed and burned the statue of his father, Hafez Asad. From the roof of the officers' club, shooting was opened at the crowd, which led to new victims ^{[34] [35]} . Protests were held in other Syrian cities, such as Homs , Hama, Baniyas, Jasim , Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia . The death toll amounted to a total of more than 70 people ^[36] .

Even before the uprising, the Syrian government conducted mass arrests of political activists and human rights activists , whom the Assad government declared " terrorists ." Political opposition leaders Gassan al-Najjar ^[37] , Abbas Abbas ^[38] and Adnan Mustafa ^[39] were arrested.

After the start of mass protests, the government launched a campaign of arrests. According to human rights groups, tens of thousands of people were arrested. A law was passed allowing the police and any of the 18 special services to detain the suspect for eight days without a warrant. Mainly, two groups of the population were subjected to arrests: political activists and men in cities that caused the greatest suspicions of the authorities ^[40] . Many of the detainees were tortured, beaten and mistreated. According to Human Rights Watch , on July 3, 2012, at least 27 torture centers of the Syrian special services operated ^[41] .

President Assad declared the opposition Islamic terrorists ( Takfir ), and presented himself as a guarantor of a secular form of government ^[42] . In early April, large security forces were directed against tent cities in Latakia . Roadblock networks have been set up in several cities to prevent protest demonstrations. Despite the repression, mass protests continued throughout the month in the cities of Dar'a , Baniyas , Kamyshly , Homs , Duma and Kharasta ^[43] .

During March and April, the Syrian government, hoping to ease the unrest, proposed a number of political concessions and reforms. The conscription was shortened ^[44] and the governor of Dar'a province was sent into retirement ^[45] . The government promised to release political prisoners, reduce taxes, raise salaries for public sector employees, ensure more freedom of the press, and increase employment opportunities ^[46] . Of these promises, only a few were fulfilled. ^[47]

The government, led by members of the Alawite religious movement , made some concessions to the Sunni Muslims , who constitute the majority of the population in Syria, as well as some national minorities. Thus, the ban on teachers to wear a traditional Muslim veil - niqab - was lifted. The only casino in the country was closed ^[48] . The government also granted citizenship to thousands of Syrian Kurds who previously had the status of “foreigners” ^[49] .

One of the main demands of the protesters was the lifting of the state of emergency in force in Syria for almost 50 years. The emergency law allowed the government to arbitrarily arrest and ban political opposition. On April 21, 2011, after several weeks of debate, Bashar Asad signed a decree abolishing the state of emergency ^[50] . Nevertheless, anti-government protests continued, as activists of the movement considered the promises of reforms too vague ^[51] .

April 2011

As the protests continued, the Syrian government began using the regular army to suppress the protests, which was a new stage in the escalation of the conflict. On April 25, the army laid siege to the city of Dar'a , which was the center of the uprising. The soldiers shot the demonstrators and searched the houses in search of the rebels; the number of those arrested was in the hundreds ^{[52] [53]} . For the first time, tanks and snipers were involved against the demonstrators ^[52] . Intelligence agencies began to turn off water, electricity and telephone lines in residential areas, as well as withdraw flour and other foodstuffs. Clashes between the army and the protesters, some of which were armed at that time, led to the deaths of hundreds of people ^{[53] [54]} . By May 5, most of the protests were crushed and the army was withdrawn from the city, with the exception of a small garrison .

May 2011

Events similar to those that took place in Dar'a (see above) also took place in the cities of Baniyas, Homs , Tell-Kalah, Lattakia and others ^[55] . Насилие над населением городов продолжалось и после окончания активных действий ^[56] . По данным сирийской организации по правам человека, на конец мая количество убитых превышало 1000 человек ^[57] .

Июнь — июль 2011

По мере развития восстания силы оппозиции становились более организованными и лучше вооруженными ^[58] . Первоё вооружённое антиправительственное выступление имело место 4 июня 2011 года в городе Джиср аш-Шугур (провинция Идлиб ), близ турецкой границы. Восставшие подожгли управление безопасности после того, как оттуда был открыт огонь по похоронной процессии. В огне погибли восемь сотрудников безопасности; восставшие заняли здание и захватили находившееся там оружие. Столкновения между демонстрантами и силами безопасности продолжились и в последующие дни. Некоторые офицеры службы безопасности перешли на сторону восставших после того, как сотрудники тайной полиции казнили солдат, которые отказались стрелять в мирных граждан. 6 июня суннитская милиция и солдаты-перебежчики устроили засаду на колонну сил безопасности, направлявшуюся в город. Опасаясь мести армии, члены милиции и перебежчики, а также около 10 тыс. жителей города бежали через турецкую границу ^[6] .

В июне и июле протесты продолжались по мере того, как правительственные войска расширяли свои операции, открывая огонь по демонстрантам и используя против демонстрантов танки. В начале июня осаде подверглись города Растан и Телль-Биса , а также город Мааррет-эн-Нууман ^[59] . 30 июня массовые протесты вспыхнули в Алеппо — крупнейшем городе Сирии ^[60] . 3 июля армия применила танки в Хаме , после того, как в городе состоялась массовая демонстрация против Башара Асада ^[61] .

29 июля группа офицеров, дезертировавших из сирийской армии, объявила о создании Свободной сирийской армии , в которую вошли бывшие сирийские военнослужащие, перешедшие на сторону восставших. ССА объявила своей целью отстранение Башара Асада от власти.

С самого начала беспорядков Турция оказывала активную помощь оппонентам Башара Асада. Летом несколько тысяч противников режима и членов их семей нашли убежище на территории Турции. Президент Реджеп Тайип Эрдоган подверг критике сирийские власти, назвав их действия «ужасающими». 9 августа тогдашний министр иностранных дел Турции Ахмет Давутоглу посетил Дамаск и провёл многочасовые переговоры с Башаром Асадом. По мнению некоторых наблюдателей, через Давутоглу сирийскому президенту были переданы политические требования Запада. Достичь согласия, однако, не удалось, и 23 августа в Стамбуле был создан Сирийский национальный переходный совет . Совет должен был фактически играть роль правительства Сирии в изгнании, однако его деятельность оказалась крайне зависима от личных амбиций и взаимоотношений лидеров различных оппозиционных групп ^[4] .

1. ↑ В некоторых источниках говорится, что засуха сохранялась до 2011 года