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Swiss Union (1291-1798)

The Swiss Union is a state association in Central Europe that lasted from 1291 to 1798 . It arose as a military alliance between the three cantons and gradually turned into an independent confederate state , comprising 13 cantons and a number of other lands.

History of Switzerland
Coat of arms of Switzerland.svg

Switzerland
before unification (1291)
Prehistoric Switzerland
Roman Switzerland
Medieval switzerland

Swiss Union (1291-1798)

During the Napoleonic Wars
Helvetic Republic (1798–1803)
Act of Mediation (1803–1814)

Transition period
Restoration in Switzerland (1815–1847)

Swiss Confederation
Before World Wars (1848–1914)
Switzerland during the First World War (1914–1918)
Switzerland during the Second World War (1939–1945)
Modern history (since 1945)


Content

Union of the Three Cantons

First Attempt to

In 1231, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II bought Uri in favor of the empire from the Habsburgs ; in 1240, he also granted Schwitz a special charter of liberties, by virtue of which Schwitz became imperial. The Habsburgs did not recognize this charter and undertook the conquest of Schwyz in 1245 - 1252 . Uri and the still Habsburg Unterwalden came to the rescue of Schwitz; during the war they concluded the first union treaty, the text of which was not preserved. After some time, Schwyz and Unterwalden were forced to recognize the power of the Habsburgs, and their union broke up.

1291 Union Treaty

 
1291 Treaty

On August 1, 1291, the agreement was renewed "for eternal times." The contract act, drawn up much later in Latin, has been preserved in the archives of the city of Schwyz. The Allies pledged to help each other with advice and deed, personally and by property, on their lands and outside them, against everyone and everyone who wants to hurt or abuse them all or any of them.

The existing rights were not violated by the agreement: “everyone, according to his condition and position, must serve his master and be subject to him,” but the allies announced that “they will not accept any judge who will receive this position for money and will not be our fellow countryman ( Landsmann ). " This denied the right to send extraneous Vogts, but not the senior justice of the local lords, for then an increase followed: "let everyone obey his judge."

The main goal of creating an alliance of the three Alpine cantons (districts) was to resist the attempts of the Habsburgs to subjugate them and establish their control over the St. Gotthard Pass , through which an important trade route connecting Germany with Northern Italy passed. As a result of the conclusion of the union treaty in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire, one more - practically independent - state emerged: the Swiss Union (although the treaty did not legally eliminate the legal dependence of the cantons on the empire) [1] . This moment is usually considered the beginning of Switzerland as a state, although even the name “Switzerland” was still unknown at that time: it appeared later after the Battle of Morgarten as a result of the unlawful application of the name Schwyz to all allied communities.

At the same time, on August 1, relying on the 1291 treaty, it was deliberately chosen as a national holiday only in the late 1890s . Until the mid- 19th century, the people of Switzerland believed in the legends of the formation of the Swiss Union, associated with the name of William Tell ; according to them, the beginning of the history of Switzerland was related to the mythical treaty of Rutli in 1307, which was followed by the assassination of Vogt Gessler by William Tell.

Victory at Morgarten

 
The union of the three cantons in 1315.
 
Swiss Confederation Growth

In 1307, King Adolf of Nassau , hostile to the Habsburgs, confirmed the independence of Schwyz and Uri from the empire with a special letter of liberty. In 1309, Henry VII of Luxembourg confirmed it a second time, giving, moreover, a letter of liberty and Unterwalden. When, in the struggle for the imperial crown between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Habsburg, the Allies took the side of the former, the latter's brother, Duke Leopold , made an attempt to subjugate their authority to Austria. In addition to 2,000 knights, his army also included residents of Zug , Zurich and other Swiss possessions of Austria. The allies warned him: they entered the territory of Zug. A numerically insignificant detachment of peasants and hunters ambushed at Morgarten Heights, above Lake Egeri , whence an unexpected attack on an enemy who entered a narrow valley between the lake and the mountains, turned him almost without loss into a disorderly and disastrous flight for him. This battle became known as the Battle of Morgarten ; The brilliant victory of the Swiss infantry over the Knights cavalry of the Habsburgs raised the importance of the allies and ensured their independence.

3 weeks after the battle, the Allies reaffirmed their alliance with a new treaty concluded in Brunnen ( December 9, 1315 ) for eternal times; the contract was drawn up in German. At the beginning of 1316, Louis of Bavaria, with letters in the name of the three lands, confirmed the free letters of his predecessors. The dependence on the empire was expressed, by virtue of these letters, only in the fact that the emperor appointed one common imperial vogt for all three lands, but the power of this vogt was completely illusory.

The alliance of 1291 and 1315 was and remained purely and exclusively military, which did not impede the independence of the land ( German Orte ; the French term “ canton ” was used no earlier than the 16th century, but completely replaced the old term Ort only at the end of the 18th century). Independent development of the three original lands went towards democratization. The serf ( Hörige and Leibeigene ) monasteries in Schwitz and the local seniors in Unterwalden were gradually freed as soon as the seniors ceased to have support in external power. This process ended no earlier than the 16th century.

The Union of Eight Cantons

The formation of the union of the eight cantons

The freedom of the original cantons was constantly in danger while the city of Lucerne , closely connected with them by Lake Firwaldstätten , was in the power of the Habsburgs, with whom it was bought in 1291 . Just at this time, the connection with Lucerne in other forest cantons became especially close: they remained purely rural, while in Lucerne, as in many other cities in Switzerland (especially in Zurich and Basel), wool and linen (a in Zurich and silk) industry. Lucerne sold his products to the Allied cantons in exchange for raw materials. The workshop organization that developed in it did not get along with the Vogts appointed from the Habsburgs.

In 1332, the Lucernians entered into an eternal alliance with the three already allied lands; thus, the Union covered all the lands around Lake Firwaldstett . Austria did not want to come to terms with this, but the war of 1336 did not lead to anything. In 1343, Austrian supporters plotted in Lucerne itself, but it was uncovered and the conspirators executed. In 1346, Charles IV, chosen by the emperor, rival of Louis of Bavaria, restored all the rights of the Habsburgs in Swabia (which included Switzerland), recognizing the letters of his predecessors as null and void. But this restoration was purely paper.

In 1351, the imperial city of Zurich, in view of the impending war with Austria, entered into an “eternal union” with the three original cantons, and it secured separate rights for itself. In the ensuing war, the Allies conquered the Austrian possessions of Glarus and Zug , but preferred to gain their support by accepting them in their union on an equal footing ( 1352 ). In 1353, the imperial city of Bern , which already in 1339 , with the help of the allied cantons, defeated the forces of an enemy coalition (the city of Freiburg , the city of Solothurn and several count clans in the Bernese Oberland), which relied on the Habsburgs, entered into an alliance with Schwitz at the Battle of Laupen , Uri and Unterwalden (but not with Zurich and not with Lucerne).

Thus, five more joined the original three cantons of the Swiss Union ( Schwitz , Uri and Unterwalden ) - Lucerne ( 1332 ), Zurich ( 1351 ), Zug ( 1352 ), Glarus ( 1352 ) and Berne ( 1353 ), and the total number of the union of cantons reached eight (at the same time, the newly joined cantons - except Glarus - were “urban” cantons).

Consolidation of the Union of Eight Cantons

At first, the position of the union of the eight cantons was not, however, stable: according to the Regensburg peace of 1355 , which ended the war with Austria, the allies had to abandon Zug and Glarus, but defended the independence of the remaining lands, although with some obligations to the Habsburgs ( so, Zurich was not supposed to give his citizenship to citizens of Austria and was not supposed to join any unions without the approval of the Duke of Austria).

In 1364, the Forest Cantons attacked Zug, conquered it and again accepted into their union. In 1370, six lands (Forest cantons, Zurich and Zug, without Bern) concluded a new agreement between themselves, the so-called Popov Charter ( Pfaffenbrief ). The probst of the chapter of the Zurich Cathedral from personal revenge captured the Lucerne Schultgeis and his companions returning from the Zurich fair, and then refused to appear at a secular court. The excitement caused by this event among the allies and even among the Zurich people, who saw this as a violation of the peace of their fair, forced him to free the prisoners. The Popov Charter reaffirmed the obligation to maintain peace in the territory of the Union lands, expanded the jurisdiction of secular courts for crimes committed by clergy, and accurately determined the jurisdiction of crimes committed by the inhabitants of one of the Union lands against the inhabitants of another. This was the first completely civil agreement between the allies.

At the Constance Diet ( 1385 ), some Swiss cantons (Bern, Zurich, Zug, Lucerne) entered into an agreement with the cities of Swabia (including Basel and Zoloturny ), in the calculation to find support against Austria in them; but when the war really began, caused by the desire of Austria to expand its possessions in Switzerland, the Swiss were left without help. Nevertheless, they managed to take possession of several Austrian cities, including Zempach (in the current canton of Lucerne). Here came the Duke Leopold III ; there was a battle ( 1386 ) in which the duke was killed, and the Swiss won a second brilliant victory over the Austrian knights, once again and finally consolidating their independence.

A few weeks before this battle, the Glarusians rebelled against the Austrians, killed their garrison and announced their accession to the Union. Austria, despite the Zempach defeat, sent a new army against Glarus, but it was defeated at Nefels . In 1389, the allies concluded a favorable peace for Austria with them for seven years, which in 1394 was renewed for 20 years, in 1412 - for 50. Thus, by 1389 the formation of an alliance of eight cantons (or “Union of 8 Old Lands” ended) , German.Eidgenossenschaft or Bund von acht alten Orten ), which remained in this form until 1481.

The structure of the union of the eight cantons

 
Tagzatzung of 1531 in Baden (Figure 1790s)

The new legal act that recognized and affirmed this union, and the only one common to all 8 lands and even Solothurn (which participated in the Battle of Zempach on the side of the Allies), was the Zempach letter of 1393, which confirmed and expanded the provisions of the Popov Charter on the Zemsky world. The Union (which included, in addition to the full cantons, several allied lands ) recognized the supremacy of the empire, but it was almost fictitious and increasingly lost its significance. Thus, in 1400 , Zurich paid off all taxes and the imperial Vogt, and in 1425 received from the emperor the right to mint coins. The same thing happened in the XII-XV centuries and in other cities of Switzerland. Vogts were also no longer assigned to the original cantons. Nevertheless, the Allies sent their representatives to the German Reichstag until the very Burgundian war (1474).

Internal relations between the cantons of the union were and remained until 1798 completely free and voluntary. At the same time, the cantons differed in their legal status, social composition of communities, and features of the economy. The Swiss Union did not have permanent central government bodies, and Tagzatzung ( German: Tagsatzung ) was considered the supreme power - a periodically convened meeting of representatives of the cantons (the union lands did not have a casting vote on it), at which issues common to the entire Union were decided. On the Tagzatzung, each canton had one vote, and issues were almost always resolved unanimously, since it was possible to force the minority to submit to the majority’s decision only through war; there was neither a common executive power, nor a common army. Each of the cantons pursued an independent domestic and foreign policy, but undertook not to act to the detriment of the common interests of the union [1] .

Armed clashes occurred from time to time between the allies. So, in 1436 - 1450, three receptions were conducted ( 1436 , 1442 , 1443 and 1450 ) The old Zurich war between Zurich and the Forest Cantons, because of a dispute over the inheritance of the extinct genus of the counts of Toggenburg ; in this war, Zurich even connected with Austria, but, despite this, was defeated.

Allied lands

Allies waged wars with neighbors, sometimes all together, sometimes with a coalition of several cantons. During the 15th century, these were mostly successful for the Swiss, and they expanded their holdings; at the same time, they did not accept the conquered lands into their union, managing them exactly as conquered. The legal status of these lands was different: sometimes these subordinate lands were managed by one of the cantons of the union, sometimes several at the same time ( condominiums ).

In 1415, the Swiss conquered Argau from the Habsburgs and divided it: part went to Berne (“Bernese Argau”) part to other allies, forming the Baden County condominiums and the “Free States” ( German: Freie Ämter ) [2] . In 1460, the Thurgau Landgrafy was conquered, also converted into a condominium. All these lands were managed jointly by their owners, often despotic and self-serving.

On a different basis, Valais joined the Union. The eastern, German-speaking part of this land (Upper Valais) at the beginning of the XIV century was almost free from the power of the Savoy counts and formed the "Republic of Valais". In 1416, the republic entered into an alliance with Uri, Unterwalden and Lucerne, becoming union land (another name for such territories is “attributed lands”, German Zugewandte Orte ) of the Swiss Union. In 1475, the Republic of Valais defeated the Savoyans and subjugated the French-speaking part of this land (Lower Valais); since that time, the entire Valais already had the status of union land.

As early as 1353 - with the accession of Bern to the Union - the cities of Biel (in alliance with Bern since 1279) and Solothurn (in alliance with Bern since 1295) acquired the status of allied lands. In 1406, Neuchatel County received a similar status (since 1532 the Principality), which also entered into an alliance with Bern. In 1411, Appenzell became allied land, freed from the authority of the St. Gallen Monastery and entered into an alliance treaty with all the cantons of the Union, except Bern. In 1436, the county of Zargans became an allied land, which entered into an alliance with Zurich (converted to a condominium in 1483 ). In 1451, St. Gallen Abbey became a union land (an agreement with Schwyz, Lucerne, Zurich and Glarus), and in 1454 the cities of St. Gallen , Schaffhausen and Friborg .

In addition to the allied lands, there were protectorates ( German Schirmherrschaften ) - small territories that secured the "protection" of one or several cantons. An example is the tiny Republic of Gerzau (until 1798 - the smallest European republic), which became in 1332 a protectorate of Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden and Lucerne.

Internal Organization of the Cantons

The internal organization of land was diverse. The original cantons have long been democratic, and upon their liberation from Habsburg power, they were democratic republics. They were governed by a popular gathering - Landesgemeinde , convened usually in the spring; all the most important issues were resolved here, Landamman (foremen), judges, and, if necessary, ambassadors to the Union Diet and other officials were chosen. The gatherings could converge the entire free male population, and sometimes not free or semi-free. In the XV century, a universal qualification was established, and moreover, at the age of 14 (in this form it was preserved until 1798 ); up to this age, boys could attend (and were present) at gatherings, but without the right to vote. The same administration developed in Appenzell after its admission to the Union on equal terms with other cantons ( 1513 ); the landamman, appointed first by the allies, was then replaced by the elect. A close control system prevailed in Zug, in which the city was governed by the elected Schultgeiss and city council, the village by the landamman and the village council ( Landrath ); subsequently, the city and villages merged into one unit, with a common amman and council, also elected.

In other cantons, of a more urban character, there was a sharp contrast between the city and its subservient lands. In the city itself, there was a struggle between the old patrician clans, burghers (mainly merchants, bankers) and the lower class of the population - artisans organized in workshops. Looking at the greater or lesser power of one or the other of these classes, power was organized in one way or another: between democratic Zurich and the aristocratic Bern, where only representatives of the patricians entered the Schultgeisses and the Great Council, there were various intermediate steps in the form of Lucerne, Glarus , etc. Both aristocratic and democratic cities equally sought power over the adjacent territory exclusively in self-interested interests, and tried not to give it either self-government or a share in the management of the city and country. Sometimes it was necessary to make concessions to the villagers ( Waldmann agreement of 1489 in Zurich), but at the first opportunity they took back.

Despite this, in the XIV, especially in the XV century. Switzerland was, in general, the freest and most democratic country in the whole world, and at the same time the country enjoying the greatest prosperity and the highest accomplishment; safety and security of the person and property there were greater, the road safer from robbery than anywhere else. The development of trade and industry was partly a consequence of these phenomena, and partly contributed to them. In the 15th century, the Union was dominated by money and even credit economy everywhere; banks developed (to a large extent in the hands of the Jews, who at that time appeared in Swiss cities, under the protection of Swiss freedom).

Foreign policy of the union of the eight cantons

The friendly relations between the Swiss Union and Sigismund, the Duke of Tyrol , which began after joining the Union of Thurgau, involved the Union in the sphere of political relations with powerful neighboring powers. Sigismund and Louis XI , the king of France, allied with him, involved Switzerland in the war with Charles the Bold of Burgundy (1474-1477); in this war, the Swiss won several major victories, of which the most notorious were at Granson , Murten and Nancy ; in the last battle, Karl himself died, and she ended the war.

In 1478, the Allies undertook a campaign against Milan and, with a victory at Jornico, secured the possession of the Leventine Valley already belonging to them (in fact, Uri). The Burgundian war was very important for Switzerland. Having created for her the glory of invincibility, she forced foreigners to look for mercenaries in her for their troops (see Swiss mercenary troops ). At the same time, the war introduced ideas of external political power into the country, increased the importance of the military and indirectly contributed to a decrease in internal security, an increase in the number of robberies and other crimes. She was the main reason that neighboring lands began to seek accession to the Swiss Union. The Allies were not always willing to meet these aspirations. The old allies of Bern, Friborg and Solothurn, who took part in the Burgundian war on the side of the Allies, in 1477 made a corresponding request, but it was first rejected due to the reluctance of the original cantons; the reason for the reluctance lay in relation to Solothurn - in the discord between him and Unterwalden, in relation to Friborg - in the French (hence foreign) character of its population. Those who wanted a union of land, including Lucerne, entered into a separate agreement with Friborg and Zoloturn, which threatened a civil war: the original cantons referred to the 1332 agreement , which did not give Lucerne the right to separate treaties, and the rural areas subject to Lucerne wanted to take the opportunity to overthrow his power . Before the war, however, the matter did not reach.

Union of the Ten Cantons

In 1481, a Diet was convened in Stans, where the non-Walwalderman Nikolai from Fluet played a conciliatory role; a separate agreement of the cities with Friborg and Zoloturn was destroyed, and instead of the old separate agreements (until that time Zurich, Bern and Glarus had no agreements with each other and were connected with each other only through the original cantons) a new agreement was concluded (Stan's Agreement) - common to all 10 lands (including the new "city cantons" Friborg and Solothurn ), which were part of the union on equal and equal footing. The agreement includes, in a generalized form for all lands, all significant decisions from the Popov Charter: on the Zemsky world, the jurisdiction of the courts, and so on. The conclusion of new separate agreements was not, however, prohibited, and they were concluded in a large number.

From the time of the Stan Agreement, the allies considered their connection with the Holy Roman Empire to be finally broken and looked at themselves as a completely separate European power. In view of this, they refused to fulfill the demand that Emperor Maximilian and the Worms Reichstag ( 1495 ) addressed to them regarding raising money to fight the Turks. This caused a war between Switzerland and the Swabian Union ( 1499 ). The forces of the Swabian Union were defeated in several battles, especially on the river Biers (in the canton of Bern), and the emperor, through the mediation of Ludovico Moreau (Milan), concluded the Basel Peace ( 1499 ); the empire refused all claims to tax from Switzerland, to military and judicial supremacy over it.

Thus, at the very end of the XV century. after a long struggle and new military victories of the Swiss, the confederation of cantons gained actual autonomy from the empire (formally, the termination of Swiss ties with the empire was recognized only by the Westphalian world ( 1648 ) [1] .

The Swiss played a significant role in the Italian wars. With the help of Swiss mercenaries, Charles VIII conquered Naples in 1494 , and Louis XII conquered Milan in 1500 . Pope Julius II drew the Swiss to his side; as allies of the pope, they restored the power of Maximilian Sforza in Milan and secured victory over the French under Novara (1513). For themselves, the Swiss received from Louis XII Bellinzona , Lugano , Locarno , Chiavenna , Valtelin , in general, the southern part of Ticino , which until then was in the power of Milan. Ticino was converted to a conquered country. Further Swiss service to the Duke of Sforze was less successful. Francis I defeated them in the two-day battle of Marignano ( 1515 ) and made “eternal peace” with them, by virtue of which they paid indemnities of 700,000 kroons and pledged to refuse to intervene in Italian affairs.

Union of Thirteen Cantons

Formation of the Union of Thirteen Cantons

 
Swiss Union from 1291 to the beginning of the 16th century

In 1501 , the city cantons of Basel (where the first university in Switzerland was founded in 1460 ) and Schaffhausen were accepted into the Union; in 1513 , the “rural canton” Appenzell of (formerly, like Schaffhausen, union land) became an equal member of the Union. As a result, the number of full-fledged cantons reached thirteen and has not changed since then until 1798. The population of Switzerland in the first half of the XVI century. reached 900 thousand people. According to the Basel peace concluded on September 22, 1499 (after the victory of the Swiss in the Swabian war ), the Union was relieved of all duties to the empire, so that communication with it became purely formal [3] .

Switzerland of this time remained a confederation - without permanent central government bodies, a common coin, an army, a banner and a press. The supreme body was still the Sejm - Tagzatzung ( Tagsatzung ), at the sessions of which all the main decisions were made, in accordance with the principle of unanimity, both on domestic and foreign policy issues. Tagzatzung was composed of plenipotentiary deputies of the cantons, who also represented allied lands and fogtats dependent on them [3] .

In addition to the 13 cantons, the Swiss Union included quite a few “assigned lands” - lands friendly ( verbündete ) with one or the other (or several) of the members of the Union ( Eidgenossenschaft ). A completely special position among them was occupied by Neuchatel - an independent principality (with its princes), which was under the auspices of Switzerland (later princely power was vested in it by the Prussian king, and this was the Prussian principality in the Swiss Union). The Union lands also included the bishopric of Basel, the abbey of St. Gallen and the city of St. Gallen (they simultaneously asked for the admission to the Union as cantons, but were refused), Biel , Graubünden, Valais, a little later (from 1526 ) - Geneva. This also includes two cities that entered into an alliance with some of the cantons and were in the same relationship to the Swiss Union as the previous ones, although they lay outside Switzerland: Mühlhausen (in Alsace ; remained part of Switzerland until 1798 ) and Rottweil ( in Württemberg ; was part of Switzerland until 1632 ).

In a different position were condominiums - lands directly subject to several cantons at once. Lugano, Locarno and other cities of Ticino were subject to part 8, part 7 cantons; Bellinzona belonged to Uri, Schwitz and Nidwalden (one half of Unterwalden); Utsnakh and Gaster - Schwitz and Glarus, etc. Since 1536 the whole of Wo belonged to One Bern. Thus, the geographical borders of Switzerland, if we consider both the allied and subservient lands, were almost the same as now.

The difference in the position of the members of the Union, the Union lands and the lands that were in common ownership was as follows. 13 lands took equal participation in the Sejm ( Tagsatzungen ) of the Confederation. These Diet convened as needed, but they were often convened by any member in any city - most often in Lucerne, as a more convenient central position. Seimas decisions were made according to the instructions of the governments that sent their representatives; when raising new questions, the members of the Sejm postponed them for a report (“ad referendum”) to their governments. At the Stan Conference, the question of the desirability of a stronger and closer connection between the cantons was already raised, but nothing was done for this. However, in fact, after it, the Sejm solved much more diverse issues than before; Something was done to improve communication between the cantons, to streamline the common efforts of the police, etc.

The Union lands at first did not participate in the Sejm at all, and then they began to be invited there, but their representatives sat in special places and did not enjoy equal voting rights. However, the very situation of the Union lands was very diverse and depended on the agreement on the basis of which they became in such a position in relation to the Union. Sometimes these were lands that entered the Union under duress, sometimes they joined voluntarily; most often they were in union with only two or three of the cantons. The lands that were in common ownership were usually managed in such a way that the cantons that owned them appointed them in turn for one or two years.

The cantons, allied lands, and the Vogtstvo served as the main links in the political and administrative system of the Swiss Union. Органами управления в городах являлись, как правило, Большой совет, Малый совет и магистрат (последний ежегодно переизбирался и состоял из бургомистров, коллегий шефенов и отраслевых комиссий). Депутатами обоих советов обычно оказывались представители патрициата и цехов ; при этом значение Больших советов постепенно снижалось — параллельно с ростом полномочий Малых советов. Во всех кантонах Швейцарии былая демократия отступала перед натиском олигархий [4] .

По населению города Швейцарии были невелики. Даже самые крупные из них — Базель и Женева — имели от 10 до 17 тыс. жителей; Цюрих — до 8 тыс., Берн — около 5,5 тыс., остальные — и того меньше [5] .

Реформация в Швейцарии

В духовном и культурном отношении немецкая Швейцария осталась связанной с Германией даже после прекращения политической связи; французская сохраняла такую же связь с Францией. Реформация началась в Германии и Швейцарии одновременно. В 1519 году Ульрих Цвингли начал в Цюрихе свою реформаторскую деятельность. В Санкт-Галлене проповедником и двигателем реформации почти одновременно с Цвингли выступил его друг, учёный-гуманист Иоахим Ватт , бывший в Санкт-Галлене городским врачом. Он добился того, что в 1523 году город сменил прежних священников и назначил новых сторонников реформы. В Шаффхаузене горячим сторонником реформы явился аббат монастыря Всех святых Михаил Эггенсдорф . Движение не коснулось только сельских кантонов.

В 1525 году анабаптистское движение, захватившее Германию, отразилось и в Швейцарии, преимущественно в подвластных Цюриху сёлах. Здесь под знаменем религиозной реформы требовалось изменение положения крестьянства (допущение его депутатов в Большой совет, отмена некоторых повинностей, изменение законов об охоте и т. д.). Диспуты с анабаптистами, устроенные Цвингли, цели не достигли. Крестьяне сожгли и разграбили несколько монастырей, сделали несколько нападений на город, но в конце концов были усмирены, хотя правительству пришлось сделать им некоторые уступки (« Каппельская грамота »). Анабаптизм не оставил в Швейцарии заметных следов. В 1528 году принял реформацию Берн; за ним последовал Базель (где одно время жил и проповедовал Кальвин ). Везде переход к реформации был постановлен городскими советами, причём меньшинство и сельские округа были принуждены подчиниться. В кантонах Аппенцелль, Гларус и Граубюнден , ввиду невозможности прийти к общему решению, была провозглашена свобода совести.

Религиозный спор вызвал войну. Цюрих , Берн , Санкт-Галлен , Биль , Мюльгаузен , Базель , Шаффхаузен заключили союз между собой; против него стал союз 5 католических кантонов с Вале и Австрией. Первая религиозная война ( 1529 ) окончилась победой протестантов, за которой последовал мир в Каппеле (отсюда выражение «первая каппельская война»); решение религиозных вопросов предоставлено на усмотрение общин. Католические кантоны не допустили, однако, у себя протестантской проповеди; началась вторая каппельская война, окончившаяся победой католиков в битвах при Каппеле (где был убит Цвингли) и при Губеле (в Цуге) и вторым каппельским миром, которым союз протестантских городов был расторгнут. Швейцария распалась на католическую и реформатскую.

Вне этих отношений стояла западная Швейцария. В Женеве, которая в 1526 году ради самозащиты от герцогов Савойских заключила союз с Берном и Фрайбургом , начал проповедь сперва Фарель , потом (с 1536 года ) Кальвин. Религиозной борьбой попытался воспользоваться герцог Савойский, чтобы вновь подчинить себе Женеву, но не только не преуспел в этом, а потерял в войне с Берном принадлежавшие ему ещё Во (южная часть нынешнего кантона, но без Лозанны, составлявшей особое епископство, тоже доставшееся Берну) и небольшие сеньории Же и Шабле (обе принадлежат ныне Франции). Все попытки Савойи возвратить себе Во остались безрезультатными; только по договору 1564 года Берн уступил ей обратно Же и Шабле.

В Лозанне — тотчас после её присоединения к Берну ( 1536 ), в Женеве — несколько позднее ( 1559 ) — были основаны академии. Кроме свободных в религиозном отношении Граубюндена , Гларуса и первое время Аппенцелля, как протестантские кантоны, так и католические проводили у себя религиозное единство с обычной в то время исключительностью и нетерпимостью, со смертными казнями, сожжением и изгнаниями, хотя все такие религиозные преследования не достигали здесь тех размеров, как в других странах Европы. Центрами католической пропаганды были Люцерн, где на частные пожертвования была основана иезуитская коллегия, достигшая значительного процветания, и Фрайбург (тоже иезуитская коллегия).

Контрреформация в Швейцарии

Начиная с 1540-х гг. католическая церковь повела решительное наступление против Реформации повсюду, где та добилась успеха. Такая политика католицизма получила название Контрреформации и нашла своё наиболее яркое выражение в деятельности основанного в 1540 г. Ордена иезуитов и в предпринятых папством мероприятиях по осуществлению решений Тридентского собора 1545—1563 гг. [6]

В 1586 году семь католических кантонов (4 лесных, Цуг, Фрайбург, Золотурн ) заключили так называемый «Золотой» (названный так по золочёным заглавным буквам грамоты) или Борромейский союз (по имени кардинала Борромео ), обязывавший его членов защищать католицизм внутри каждого кантона, в случае надобности — силой оружия. Швейцарский союз вследствие этого как бы распался. Католические кантоны имели свои сеймы в Люцерне, протестантские — свои в Арау , хотя рядом сохранялись и прежние общие, утратившие большую долю своего и без того скромного значения. Внутренняя связь между двумя частями Швейцарии ослабела; зато укрепилась связь между кантонами одной религии. Однако оставались общие дела, например управление землями, состоявшими в общем владении кантонов разных религий; это общее владение являлось ареной постоянной борьбы, отражавшейся и на подвластных землях, в которых поочерёдно управляли и судили католические и протестантские фогты.

В 1587 году 6 из 7 католических кантонов заключили дружеский союз с Филиппом II Испанским . В 1597 году Аппенцелль вследствие религиозной борьбы распался на 2 полукантона: католический Иннерроден и протестантский Ауссерроден . Ближайшим поводом к распадению послужила борьба из-за введения григорианского календаря , который был принят католическими кантонами и не принят протестантскими; спор этот чуть было не привёл к гражданской войне. Католические кантоны хотели насильственно ввести новый календарь в тех землях, которые находились в общем владении нескольких кантонов и в которых они могли это сделать, опираясь на право большинства. Протестантские кантоны не соглашались, настаивая на том, что вопрос о календаре, как вопрос религиозный, не подлежит решению по большинству голосов. Война была предупреждена посредническим вмешательством Франции, устроившей соглашение, по которому произошло размежевание между землями старого и нового стиля. Только в начале XVIII века , когда для протестантов религиозная точка зрения потеряла своё преобладающее значение, протестантские кантоны один за другим тоже приняли григорианский календарь (подробности религиозной борьбы — см. Реформация , Цюрихская реформация , Кальвин , Женева ).

Экономическое развитие Швейцарского союза

Религиозная борьба, ослабившая единство Швейцарии, затормозила развитие её экономического благосостояния. В течение XVI в. Швейцарию не раз посещали чумные эпидемии и голод . Только в XVII в. промышленность опять начала быстро развиваться. Особенно благоприятно для неё было то, что Швейцария осталась совершенно в стороне от тридцатилетней войны , задержавшей на много лет экономическое и культурное развитие всей средней Европы. Для Швейцарии она прямо привела только к потере чуждого ей Роттвейля и к признанию её политической самостоятельности Вестфальским мирным договором 1648 г.; но косвенные последствия были неисчислимы. В Швейцарии проявилось и приняло сознательную форму стремление к сохранению нейтралитета в европейских столкновениях — стремление, впоследствии выработавшееся (окончательно только в XIX в.) в форму политической идеи или задачи Швейцарии. В Швейцарии спасались беглецы от религиозных преследований, ища убежища предпочтительно в родственных им по религиозному миросозерцанию кантонах. Тогда же Швейцария стала местом убежища и для политических изгнанников; впоследствии (тоже в XIX в.) значение её в этом смысле стало ещё больше и было как бы признано соседними державами (не раз, впрочем, делавшими попытки нарушить это право).

Изгнанники-гугеноты принесли в Женеву новые отрасли промышленности. In the XVII century. в Швейцарии развилась шёлковая, бархатная, ткацкая, хлопчатобумажная, вязальная (вязание чулок) промышленность; появились в зачаточном виде плетение соломы, изделия из волос (конских; матрацы и т. д.), развившиеся уже в XVIII веке . Этому способствовало большее спокойствие в первой половине XVII в., чем где бы то ни было в Европе, а разорение промышленности у соседей благоприятствовало расширению рынков.

Наряду с этими отраслями промышленности сохранялась и такая, как служба наёмниками в иностранных войсках .

К концу XVIII в. Швейцария достигла в области промышленности и торговли довольно значительного расцвета. На востоке особенно развилось хлопчатобумажное производство, в Цюрихе и Базеле — шёлковое; на западе сильное распространение получило часовое производство . Развилась значительно и торговля, несмотря на разные запретительные законы, долго стеснявшие свободное её развитие. Мало-помалу швейцарцы из воинственных наёмников, проливавших свою кровь за деньги на службе у иностранных государей, превратились в мирных промышленников и торговцев.

XVIII century является также эпохой интеллектуального развития и расцвета Швейцарии. Особенный блеск этой эпохе придаёт деятельность швейцарских учёных ( Якоб , Иоганн и Даниил Бернулли , Я. Герман , Л. Эйлер , И. С. Кёниг , А. фон Галлер , Ж.-Ж. Руссо , Ш. Бонне , И. фон Мюллер ), писателей ( И. Я. Бодмер , И. Я. Брейтингер , С. Гесснер , И. К. Лафатер ), педагога И. Г. Песталоцци и других деятелей науки и культуры, но этот блеск лишь ярче подчёркивает политический упадок страны.

Социальная борьба в Швейцарском союзе

Государственные формы не развивались с той же быстротой, с какой шла вперёд экономическая жизнь. Сельские кантоны сохраняли свои демократические формы. В городских кантонах тоже сохранялись старые формы, в основном принявшие ещё более аристократический характер вследствие уменьшения числа старинных родов, прекращения доступа новым людям в бюргерство и образования нового, численно весьма значительного, но политически бесправного промышленного населения. В Цюрихе, Берне и др. городах уже в XVI в. вывелся обычай поголовного опроса населения. Городские советы являлись органами или одних патрициев (Берн), или патрициев и бюргеров, ставших тоже аристократией. Город делал все возможное, чтобы задержать развитие деревни. Устраивая школы и университеты для себя, он запрещал устройство школ в деревне; он предписывал деревенскому люду продавать свои продукты не иначе как в своём городе и не иначе как в нём же покупать изделия городской промышленности. В Берне патриции сохранили за собой до самой революции исключительное право покупать привозимые в город сельскохозяйственные продукты в первые часы после открытия рынка.

Ввиду таких политических условий, противоречия классовых интересов в XVII и XVIII в. обострялись и выражались в бунтах, восстаниях, усилении уголовных преступлений и увеличении суровости казней (квалифицированная смертная казнь введена в Швейцарии позже, чем где бы то ни было, но широко применялась до второй половины XVIII в., когда в других странах Европы она начала уже вымирать). Из более общих бунтов важен крестьянский бунт 1653 года , охвативший Базель , Берн , Золотурн , Люцерн .

Спустя 3 года вспыхнула гражданская война («первая Вильмергенская») между католическими кантонами Швиц и Люцерн и протестантскими Цюрихом и Берном, поводом к которой послужило жестокое преследование протестантов в Швице. После сильного поражения, нанесённого бернцам под Вильмергеном, воюющие стороны, при посредстве нейтральных кантонов и иностранных посланников, подписали мирный договор в Бадене, которым был восстановлен status quo . В 1712 г. из-за религиозной вражды снова возникла война между католическими и протестантскими кантонами; последние вмешались в конфликт между аббатом санкт-галленским и протестантами Тоггенбурга. Война эта, известная под именем «второй Вильмергенской», окончилась поражением католиков под Вильмергеном и миром в Арау, по которому бернцы получили графство Баден, завладев таким образом южной частью свободных фогтств. Перевес, со времени битвы при Каппеле ( 1531 ) принадлежавший католическим кантонам, перешёл к евангелическим кантонам. В общем, однако, религиозная рознь в XVIII в. уже потеряла свой прежний острый характер; зато усилился разлад между различными классами населения, доходивший не раз до открытых столкновений. Почти в течение всего XVIII в. идёт непрерывная борьба между олигархиями городов и деревенской демократией.

В 1707 г. вспыхнуло восстание против олигархов в Женеве (Пётр Фатио), в 1713 г. — в Цюрихе; в 1723 г. майор Давель составил заговор с целью освободить Ваадт из-под владычества Берна; в 1749 г. в самом Берне началось народное движение, во главе которого стал Самуил Генци. Все эти волнения были с жестокостью подавлены. Также неудачно окончились движения в Женеве (1781—1782 гг.) и во Фрайбурге (революция Шено, 1781—1782 гг.), где произвол аристократической партии, захватившей в свои руки власть, дошёл до чрезвычайных размеров.

Развал Швейцарского союза

 
Швейцарский союз в XVIII веке

Когда разразилась Великая французская революция , давно уже царившее в Швейцарии глухое недовольство прорвалось наружу. Несомненную роль сыграли при этом распространившиеся уже в Швейцарии идеи Руссо и пропаганда возникшего в 1790 г. в Париже революционного «Гельветического клуба», печатавшего и распространявшего в Швейцарии, несмотря на усиление цензурных строгостей, пасквили и брошюры революционного содержания. Начались движения в Женеве, Нижнем Вале и Во (Ваадте), быстро, впрочем, подавленные. В епископстве базельском возникла в 1792 г. небольшая Рауракская республика , просуществовавшая всего до мая 1793 г., когда она, по желанию самих граждан, была присоединена к Франции. Вскоре началось движение в епископстве Санкт-Галленском и в кантоне Цюрих, где правительство суровыми мерами по отношению к некоторым общинам, разыскивавшим доказательства своих старых прав, сильно возбудило против себя население.

Между тем отношения между Конфедерацией и Францией становились все хуже и хуже. В 1797 г. Наполеон присоединил к основанной им Цизальпинской республике Вальтеллину, Бормио и Киавенну. Так как области эти не были непосредственно связаны с Конфедерацией, то это не послужило поводом к войне, тем более что Конфедерация, чувствуя свою слабость, всеми силами старалась сохранить нейтралитет. Раньше нейтралитет Швейцарии был полезен Франции, защищая в критические моменты часть восточной её границы; теперь существование соседнего независимого государства вовсе не входило в виды французского правительства, особенно Наполеона, думавшего создать из Швейцарии республику по образцу Цизальпинской, чтобы стать таким образом хозяином Альп и иметь в своих руках проходы в Италию.

Вскоре представился и удобный случай для вмешательства во внутренние дела Швейцарии. Изгнанный из Во, по возвращении из России (в 1795 г.), Лагарп и базелец Окс вступили в сношения с французской Директорией с целью добиться с её помощью политического переворота в Во. 28 января 1798 г. французские войска под предводительством генерала Менара вступили в Во, объявивший себя за несколько дней перед этим независимым от Берна, под именем Леманской республики . Предлогом для вступления французов послужило убийство двух французских гусаров. Вскоре затем ваадтские общины приняли составленную Оксом и одобренную директорией конституцию единой Гельветической республики , к которой присоединился также и Базель, и таким образом Леманская республика прекратила своё существование. Революционное движение быстро распространилось и в остальных кантонах. Только Берн сохранил своё прежнее олигархическое правление и приготовился к борьбе с французами. Несмотря на храброе сопротивление бернцев, генерал Брюн, заменивший Менара, разбил их и принудил город к капитуляции, причём победителям досталось около 40 млн франков.

Notes

  1. ↑ 1 2 3 История средних веков, т. 1, 1990 , с. 306.
  2. ↑ Ааргау // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
  3. ↑ 1 2 История средних веков, т. 2, 1991 , с. 100.
  4. ↑ История средних веков, т. 2, 1991 , с. 101.
  5. ↑ История средних веков, т. 2, 1991 , с. 102.
  6. ↑ История средних веков, т. 2, 1991 , с. 113.

Literature

  • Водовозов В. В. , Крживицкий Л., Рихтер Д. И. Швейцария // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
  • Давыдов А. Г., Карабед И. К., Маслов А. Н. Воинские традиции швейцарского Средневековья: очерки исторического развития, вопросы реконструкции материальной культуры. — Нижний Новгород: Поволжье, 2012. — 312 с. — ISBN 978-5-98449-219-5 . .
  • История средних веков. Т. 1 / Под ред. З. В. Удальцовой , С. П. Карпова . — М. : Высшая школа, 1990. — 495 с. — ISBN 5-06-000011-7 . .
  • История средних веков. Т. 2 / Под ред. З. В. Удальцовой , С. П. Карпова . — М. : Высшая школа, 1991. — 400 с. — ISBN 5-06-000012-5 . .


Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Швейцарский_союз_(1291—1798)&oldid=98334359


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