Sigmund Freud (correct transcription - Freud [6] ; as it is. Sigmund Freud , German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmːnt ˈfʁɔʏt] ; full name Sigismund Schloomo Freud , it. Sigismund Schlomo Freud ; 6 May 1856 , Freiberg , Austrian empire - 93 , London ) - Austrian psychologist , psychoanalyst , psychiatrist and neurologist .
Sigmund Freud | |
---|---|
Sigismund schlomo freud | |
Birth name | |
Date of Birth | |
Place of Birth | Freiberg, Austrian Empire (now - Příbor , Czech Republic ) |
Date of death | |
Place of death | London , United Kingdom |
A country | Austria-Hungary → Austria |
Scientific field | psychiatry , neurology , psychoanalysis |
Place of work | |
Alma mater | |
Academic degree | M.D. |
Academic title | Professor |
Famous students | Karl Gustav Jung , Alfred Adler |
Known as | founder of psychoanalysis |
Awards and prizes | Goethe Prize ( 1930 ) [d] |
Signature | |
Sigmund Freud is best known as the founder of psychoanalysis , who had a significant impact on psychology , medicine , sociology , anthropology , literature and art of the 20th century [7] [8] . Freud's views on human nature were innovative for his time and throughout his life the psychologist did not cease to cause resonance and criticism in the scientific community. Interest in the theories of the scientist continues to this day [8] [9] [10] .
Among the achievements of Freud, the most important are the development of a three-component structural model of the psyche (consisting of " It ", " I " and " Super-I "), the allocation of specific phases of psychosexual personality development , the creation of the theory of the Oedipus complex , the psychologization of the concept “ Unconscious ”, the discovery of transference and countertransference , as well as the development of therapeutic methods such as the method of free association and the interpretation of dreams .
Despite the fact that the influence of Freud's ideas and personality on psychology is indisputable, many researchers consider his works to be intellectual charlatanry [11] . Virtually every fundamental postulate for Freudian theory was criticized by prominent scholars and writers such as Karl Jaspers , Erich Fromm [12] , Albert Ellis [13] , Karl Kraus [14], and many others. The empirical basis of Freud's theory was called “inadequate” and Adolf Grünbaum [15] , Peter Medavar dubbed psychoanalysis “fraud” psychoanalysis [16] , pseudoscientific theory of Freud was considered by Karl Popper [17] , which didn’t prevent, however, an outstanding author. and to the psychotherapist, director of the Vienna Neurological Clinic Victor Frankl in his fundamental work “Theory and Therapy of Neuroses” admit: “And yet, it seems to me, psychoanalysis will be the foundation for the psychotherapy of the future. [...] Therefore, the contribution made by Freud to the creation of psychotherapy does not lose its value, and what he has done is incomparable with anything ”.
During his life, Freud wrote and published a huge number of scientific works - the complete collection of his works is 24 volumes [18] . He was a doctor of medicine , a professor , an honorary doctor of law at Clark University and was a foreign member of the Royal Society of London , winner of the Goethe Prize , was an honorary member of the , the and the British Psychological Society [19] [20 ] [21] . Not only about psychoanalysis, but also many biographical books about the scientist himself. More works are published about Freud than every other theorist of psychology every year [7] .
Biography
Childhood and youth
Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the small (about 4,500 inhabitants) city of Freiberg in Moravia , which at that time belonged to Austria [22] . The street on which Freud was born, Schlossergasse, is now named after him [23] . Father Freud's paternal name was Shlomo Freud, he died in February 1856, shortly before the birth of his grandson — it was in his honor that the latter received the name. Sigmund's father, Jacob Freud, was married twice and from his first marriage had two sons - Philip and Emmanuel (Emmanuel [24] ). The second time he married at the age of 40 was Amalia Nathanson , who was half his age [25] . Sigmund's parents were Jews originating from Germany [26] . Jacob Freud had his own modest trade in fabrics. In Freiberg, Sigmund lived through the first three years of his life, until in 1859 the effects of the industrial revolution in Central Europe dealt a crushing blow to his father’s small business, practically ruining it, as did almost all Freiberg, which turned out to be in considerable decline: as the restoration of the nearby railway was completed, the city experienced a period of rising unemployment [27] . In the same year, the Freuds gave birth to a daughter, Anna [28] .
The family decided to move and left Freiberg, moving to Leipzig , where she spent only a year and, without achieving significant success, moved to Vienna [28] . Sigmund rather hard survived the move from his hometown - the forced separation from his stepbrother Philip, with whom he was on close friendship, was particularly hard on the state of the child: Philip even partially replaced his father Zygmund [29] . The Freudian family, in a difficult financial situation, settled in one of the poorest districts of the city - Leopoldstadt , which at that time was a kind of Viennese ghetto populated by poor people, refugees, prostitutes, Gypsies, proletarians and Jews. Soon, Jacob's business began to improve, and Freuds were able to move to a more acceptable place for housing, although they could not afford the luxury. At the same time, Sigmund seriously fascinated with literature - the love of reading, instilled by his father, he kept for the rest of his life [30] .
“I was the son of parents [...] who lived peacefully and comfortably in this small provincial nest. When I was about three years old, my father went bankrupt, and we had to leave his village and move to a big city. A series of long and difficult years followed, of which, it seems to me, nothing is worthy of a memory. ” [31]
Initially, the mother trained her son, but then she was replaced by Jacob, who very much wanted Zygmund to receive a good education and enroll in a private gymnasium. Home preparation and exceptional ability to study allowed Sigmund Freud at the age of nine to pass the entrance exam and enter the gymnasium a year earlier than the due date [32] . By this time, there were already eight children in the Freud family, and Sigmund stood out among all by diligence and passion for learning everything new; the parents fully supported him and tried to create such an atmosphere in the house that would contribute to the successful study of his son. So, if the other children were engaged by candlelight, Zygmund was allocated a kerosene lamp and even a separate room. So that nothing distracts him, the rest of the children were forbidden to play music that interfered with Sigmund [33] . The young man was seriously fond of literature and philosophy - he read Shakespeare , Kant , Hegel , Schopenhauer , Nietzsche , knew German perfectly, studied Greek and Latin , spoke fluent French , English , Spanish and Italian [34] . While studying at the gymnasium, Sigmund showed excellent results and quickly became the first student in the class, graduating with honors ( summa cum laude ) at the age of seventeen [32] .
At the end of the gymnasium, Zigmund doubted for a long time about his future profession - however, his choice was rather poor due to his social status and the prevailing anti - Semitic sentiments [34] and limited to commerce , industry , law and medicine [35] [36] . The first two options were immediately rejected by the young man because of his high education, jurisprudence also faded into the background along with youthful ambitions in politics and military affairs [36] . The impulse to make a final decision was Freud from Goethe - once he heard a professor reading an essay of a thinker called “Nature” in one of the lectures, Sigmund decided to enroll in the medical faculty [37] , although he did not have the slightest interest in medicine - later he repeatedly to admit it, and wrote: "I do not feel any predisposition to practice medicine and the medical profession" [35] , and even said in later years that medicine has never felt "in the plate", and indeed is current m doctor himself never considered [36] .
Professional development
In the fall of 1873, seventeen- year- old Sigmund Freud entered the Medical Faculty of the University of Vienna . The first year of study was not directly related to the subsequent specialty and consisted of many courses of a humanitarian nature - Sigmund attended numerous seminars and lectures, still not completely choosing a specialty to his taste. During this time, he experienced many difficulties associated with his nationality - numerous skirmishes occurred between the anti-Semitic sentiments prevailing in society [38] . Steadfastly enduring regular ridicule and attacks from peers, Sigmund began to develop persistence of character, the ability to give a fitting rebuff to the dispute and the ability to resist criticism: “From early childhood I was forced to get used to the lot of being in opposition and banned by the majority agreement.” Thus, the foundations were laid for a certain degree of independence in judgments ” [39] .
Sigmund began to study anatomy and chemistry , but received the greatest pleasure from the lectures of the famous physiologist and psychologist Ernst von Brücke , who had a significant influence on him [40] . In addition, Freud attended classes that were conducted by the eminent zoologist Karl Klaus ; acquaintance with this scientist opened up broad prospects for independent research practice and scientific work, to which Zygmund. The efforts of an ambitious student were crowned with success, and in 1876 he was given the opportunity to carry out the first research work at the Institute of Zoological Research in Trieste , one of whose departments was headed by Klaus. It was there that Freud wrote the first article published by the Academy of Sciences; it was devoted to identifying sex differences in river eels [41] . During his work under the guidance of Klaus, “Freud quickly distinguished himself from other students, which allowed him twice, in 1875 and 1876, to become a fellow of the Institute of Zoological Research in Trieste” [42] .
Freud maintained an interest in zoology, but after receiving a research fellow at the Institute of Physiology, Brucke was completely influenced by psychological ideas and went to the laboratory for scientific work, leaving zoological surveys [43] . “Under his [Brücke] guidance, Freud, a student, worked at the Vienna Institute of Physiology, sitting for hours at a microscope. [...] He was never as happy as in the years spent in the laboratory studying the structure of the nerve cells of the spinal cord of animals ” [44] . The scientific work fully captured Freud; He studied, among other things, the detailed structure of animal and plant tissues and wrote several articles on anatomy and neurology [45] . Here, at the Physiological Institute, at the end of the 1870s, Freud met a doctor, Joseph Breuer , with whom he developed strong friendships; both of them had similar characters and a common outlook on life, therefore they quickly found mutual understanding. Freud admired Breuer's scientific talents and learned a lot from him: “He became my friend and helper in the difficult conditions of my existence. We used to share with him all our scientific interests. Naturally, I derived the main benefit from these relations ” [46] .
In 1881, Freud passed the final exams perfectly and received the degree of Doctor [47] , which, however, did not change his way of life - he remained to work in the laboratory under Brücke, hoping to eventually take up the next vacant position and firmly bind himself with scientific work [45] . Freud’s supervisor, seeing his ambitions and considering the financial difficulties he faced because of the family’s poverty, decided to dissuade Zygmund from pursuing a research career. In one of the letters, Brückke remarked: “Young man, you have chosen a path leading nowhere. At the Department of Psychology in the next 20 years, vacancies are not expected, and you do not have enough means of livelihood. I see no other solution: leave the institute and start practicing medicine ” [48] . Freud heeded the advice of his teacher - to a certain extent, this was due to the fact that in the same year he met Martha Bernays , fell in love with her and decided to marry her; therefore, Freud needed money [45] . Martha belonged to a Jewish family with rich cultural traditions — her grandfather, Isaac Bernays, was a rabbi in Hamburg , his two sons, Michael and Jacob, taught at the University of Bonn and Munich . Marta's father, Berman Bernays, worked as a secretary for Lorentz von Stein [49] .
To discover private practice, Freud did not have enough experience - at the University of Vienna he acquired only theoretical knowledge, while it was necessary to develop clinical practice independently. Freud decided that the Vienna City Hospital was best suited for this. Sigmund began with surgery , but after two months he abandoned this idea, finding work too tiring [50] . Deciding to change the field of activity, Freud switched to neurology , in which he was able to achieve some success - studying methods of diagnosing and treating children with paralysis , as well as various speech disorders ( aphasias ), he published a number of works on these topics that became known in scientific and medical circles. He belongs to the term " cerebral palsy " (now generally accepted). Freud gained a reputation as a highly qualified neuropathologist [44] . At the same time, his fascination with medicine quickly faded away, and in the third year of work at the Vienna Clinic, Sigmund was completely disappointed in her.
In 1883, he decided to move to a psychiatric department headed by Theodore Meinert , a recognized scientific authority in his field [51] . The period of work under the leadership of Meynert was very productive for Freud - exploring the problems of comparative anatomy and histology , he published such scientific works as "A case of hemorrhage in the brain with a complex of basic indirect symptoms associated with scurvy" (1884), "On the question of intermediate location of an olive body ”,“ A case of muscle atrophy with extensive loss of sensitivity (violation of pain and temperature sensitivity) ”(1885),“ Complicated acute neuritis of the nerves of the spinal cord and brain ”,“ The origin of the auditory nerve a "," Observation of strong unilateral loss of sensitivity in the patient hysteria "(1886). In addition, Freud wrote articles for the General Medical Dictionary and created a number of other works on cerebral hemiplegia in children and aphasias [52] . For the first time in his life, his work overwhelmed Zygmund with his head and turned into a true passion for him. At the same time, the young man who was striving for scientific recognition experienced a feeling of dissatisfaction with his work, since, in his own opinion, he did not achieve any significant success; Freud's psychological state rapidly deteriorated, he was regularly in a state of depression and depression [53] .
For a short time, Freud worked in the venereal division of the Department of Dermatology , where he studied the relationship of syphilis to diseases of the nervous system. He devoted his free time to laboratory research. Seeking to expand his practical skills for further independent private practice as much as possible, from January 1884, Freud moved to the department of nervous diseases. Shortly thereafter, an epidemic of cholera broke out in Montenegro’s neighboring Montenegro , and the government asked for help in ensuring medical control at the border - most of Freud’s senior colleagues volunteered and his immediate leader was on two months leave; due to the prevailing circumstances, for a long time, Freud served as chief physician of the department [54] .
Cocaine Research
In 1884, Freud read about the experiences of a German military doctor with a new drug - cocaine . The scientific papers included statements that the substance can increase endurance and significantly reduce fatigue. Freud was extremely interested in reading and decided to conduct a series of experiments on himself. The first mention of this substance by scientists is dated April 21, 1884 - in one of the letters Freud noted: "I got some cocaine and try to experience its effects using in cases of heart disease and nervous exhaustion, especially in the terrible state of morphine weaning." The effect of cocaine made the strongest impression on the scientist, he described the drug as an effective analgesic , making it possible to carry out the most complicated surgical operations; an enthusiastic article about a substance came out of Freud’s pen in 1884 and was called “About Coke”. For a long time, the scientist used cocaine as an anesthetic, using it alone and writing out to his bride, Martha. Delighted with the "magic" properties of cocaine, Freud insisted on using it by his friend Ernst Fleischl von Marxov, who was sick with a serious infectious disease, suffered a finger amputation and suffered from severe headaches (and also suffered from morphine dependence). As a cure for morphine abuse, Freud advised a friend to use cocaine. The desired result was not achieved - von Marks subsequently quickly became addicted to a new substance, and he began having frequent attacks, similar to delirium tremens , accompanied by terrible pains and hallucinations. At the same time, messages about cocaine poisoning and addiction to it, about the disastrous consequences of its use began to arrive from all over Europe [55] .
However, Freud's enthusiasm did not diminish - he investigated cocaine as an anesthetic for various surgical operations. The result of the work of the scientist was a voluminous publication in the Central Journal of General Therapy about cocaine, in which Freud presented the history of coca leaf consumption by South American Indians, described the history of plant penetration in Europe and detailed the results of his own observations of the effect of cocaine use. In the spring of 1885, the scientist gave a lecture on this substance, in which he acknowledged the possible negative consequences of its use, but noted that he had not observed any addiction cases (this happened before the deterioration of von Marksov’s condition). Фрейд закончил лекцию словами: «Я, не колеблясь, советую применять кокаин в подкожных инъекциях по 0,3—0,5 грамма , не беспокоясь о его накапливании в организме». Критика не заставила себя ждать — уже в июне появились первые крупные работы, осуждающие позицию Фрейда и доказывающие её несостоятельность. Научная полемика относительно целесообразности применения кокаина продолжалась вплоть до 1887 года [56] . В этот период Фрейд опубликовал ещё несколько работ — «К вопросу об изучении действия кокаина» (1885), «Об общем воздействии кокаина» (1885), «Кокаиномания и кокаинофобия» (1887) [57] .
К началу 1887 года наука окончательно развенчала последние мифы о кокаине — он «был публично осуждён как одно из бедствий человечества, наряду с опиумом и алкоголем ». Фрейд, к тому моменту уже кокаинозависимый, вплоть до 1900 года страдал от головных болей, сердечных приступов и частых кровотечений из носа. Примечательно, что разрушительное воздействие опасного вещества Фрейд не только испытал на себе, но и невольно (поскольку на тот момент пагубность кокаинизма ещё не была доказана) распространил на многих знакомых. Этот факт его биографии Э. Джонс упорно скрывал и предпочитал не освещать, однако данная информация стала достоверно известна из опубликованных писем, в которых Джонс утверждал: «До того, как опасность наркотиков была определена, Фрейд уже представлял социальную угрозу, так как он толкал всех, кого знал, принимать кокаин» [58] .
Зарождение психоанализа
В 1885 году Фрейд решил принять участие в проводимом среди младших врачей конкурсе, победитель которого получал право на научную стажировку в Париже у знаменитого врача-психиатра Жана Шарко [59] . Помимо самого Фрейда, среди претендентов было немало подающих большие надежды врачей, и Зигмунд отнюдь не являлся фаворитом, о чём ему было прекрасно известно; единственным шансом для него была помощь влиятельных в академических кругах профессоров и учёных, с которыми он ранее имел возможность работать [60] . Заручившись поддержкой Брюкке, Мейнерта, Лейдесдорфа (в его частной клинике для душевнобольных Фрейд непродолжительное время замещал одного из докторов) и ещё нескольких знакомых учёных, Фрейд выиграл конкурс, получив тринадцать голосов в свою поддержку против восьми [61] . Шанс учиться под руководством Шарко был для Зигмунда большой удачей, он возлагал огромные надежды на будущее в связи с предстоящей поездкой. Так, незадолго до отъезда он с воодушевлением писал своей невесте: «Маленькая Принцесса, моя маленькая Принцесса. О, как это будет прекрасно! Я приеду с деньгами… Потом я отправлюсь в Париж, стану великим учёным и вернусь в Вену с большим, просто огромным ореолом над головой, мы тотчас же поженимся, и я вылечу всех неизлечимых нервнобольных» [62] .
Осенью 1885 года Фрейд прибыл в Париж к Шарко, который в то время находился в зените своей славы [63] . Шарко изучал причины и лечение истерии . В частности, основным трудом невролога было исследование применения гипноза — использование данного метода позволяло ему как индуцировать, так и устранять такие истерические симптомы, как паралич конечностей, слепоту и глухоту. Под началом Шарко Фрейд работал в клинике Сальпетриер [64] . Воодушевлённый методами работы Шарко и поражённый его клиническими успехами, он предложил свои услуги в качестве переводчика лекций своего наставника на немецкий язык, на что получил его разрешение [45] .
В Париже Фрейд увлечённо занимался невропатологией , изучая различия между пациентами, пережившими паралич вследствие физической травмы, и теми, у которых симптомы паралича проявились по причине истерии. Фрейду удалось установить, что истерические пациенты сильно различаются по степени тяжести паралича и местам травм, а также выявить (не без помощи Шарко) наличие определённых связей между истерией и проблемами сексуального характера [65] . В конце февраля 1886 года Фрейд покинул Париж и решил провести некоторое время в Берлине , получив возможность изучать детские болезни в клинике Адольфа Багинского , где и провёл несколько недель до возвращения в Вену [66] .
13 сентября того же года Фрейд женился на своей возлюбленной Марте Бернайс, которая впоследствии родила ему шестерых детей — Матильду (1887—1978), Мартина (1889—1969), Оливера (1891—1969), (1892—1966), Софи (1893—1920) и Анну (1895—1982) [67] . После возвращения в Австрию Фрейд начал работать в институте под руководством Макса Кассовица . Он занимался переводами и обзорами научной литературы, вёл частную практику, в основном работая с невротиками , что «неотлагательно ставило на повестку дня вопрос о терапии, который не был столь актуальным для учёных, занимавшихся научно-исследовательской деятельностью» [68] . Фрейд знал об успехах своего друга Брейера и возможностях успешного применения его « катартического метода» лечения неврозов (данный метод был открыт Брейером при работе с пациенткой Анной О , а в дальнейшем и повторно использовался совместно с Фрейдом и был впервые описан в « Исследованиях истерии » [69] ), но Шарко, остававшийся для Зигмунда непререкаемым авторитетом, весьма скептически относился к данной технике [70] . Собственный опыт подсказывал Фрейду, что исследования Брейера были весьма перспективны; начиная с декабря 1887 года он всё чаще прибегал к использованию гипнотического внушения при работе с пациентами [68] . Однако первых скромных успехов в этой практике он добился только спустя год, в связи с чем обратился к Брейеру с предложением работать совместно [71] .
«Больными, которые к ним обращались, были главным образом женщины, страдавшие истерией. Болезнь проявлялась в различных симптомах — страхах (фобиях), потере чувствительности, отвращении к пище, раздвоении личности, галлюцинациях, спазмах и др. Применяя лёгкий гипноз (внушённое состояние, подобное сну), Брейер и Фрейд просили своих пациенток рассказывать о событиях, которые некогда сопровождали появление симптомов болезни. Выяснилось, что, когда больным удавалось вспомнить об этом и „выговориться“, симптомы хотя бы на какое-то время исчезали. <…> Гипноз ослаблял контроль сознания, а порой и совсем снимал его. Это облегчало загипнотизированному пациенту решение задачи, которую Брейер и Фрейд ставили, — „излить душу“ в рассказе о вытесненных из сознания переживаниях».
— Ярошевский М. Г. «Зигмунд Фрейд — выдающийся исследователь психической жизни человека» [72]
В ходе работы с Брейером Фрейд постепенно начал осознавать несовершенность катартического метода и гипноза в целом. На практике оказалось, что его эффективность далеко не столь высока, как утверждал Брейер, а в некоторых случаях лечение вовсе не приносило результата — в частности, гипноз был не в состоянии преодолеть сопротивление пациента, выражавшееся в подавлении травматических воспоминаний [45] . Зачастую попадались пациенты, вообще не пригодные для введения в гипнотическое состояние, а состояние некоторых больных после сеансов ухудшалось [71] . В период между 1892 и 1895 годами Фрейд начал поиски иного метода лечения, который был бы более эффективен, чем гипноз [73] . Для начала Фрейд попробовал избавиться от необходимости применения гипноза, используя методическую хитрость — надавливание на лоб с целью внушения пациенту того, что он обязательно должен вспомнить ранее имевшие место в его жизни события и переживания. Основная задача, которую решал учёный, заключалась в том, чтобы получить искомые сведения о прошлом пациента в нормальном (а не гипнотическом) его состоянии. Использование накладывания ладони дало определённый эффект, позволив отойти от гипноза, но всё же оставалось несовершенной методикой, и Фрейд продолжал поиск решения проблемы [74] .
Ответ на вопрос, который так занимал учёного, оказался совершенно случайно подсказан книгой одного из любимых писателей Фрейда, Людвига Бёрне . Его эссе «Искусство в три дня стать оригинальным писателем» заканчивалось словами: «Пишите всё, что вы думаете о самих себе, о ваших успехах, о турецкой войне, о Гёте, об уголовном процессе и его судьях, о ваших начальниках, — и через три дня вы изумитесь, как много кроется в вас совершенно новых, неведомых вам идей» [73] . Эта мысль подтолкнула Фрейда к использованию всего массива информации, который клиенты сообщали о себе в диалогах с ним, в качестве ключа к пониманию их психики [75] .
Впоследствии метод свободных ассоциаций стал основным в работе Фрейда с пациентами. Многие больные сообщали о том, что давление со стороны врача — настойчивое принуждение к «проговариванию» всех приходящих на ум мыслей — мешает им сосредоточиться. Именно поэтому Фрейд отказался от «методической хитрости» с надавливанием на лоб и позволил своим клиентам говорить всё, что заблагорассудится [76] . Суть техники свободных ассоциаций заключается в следовании правилу, согласно которому пациенту предлагается свободно, без утаивания высказывать свои мысли на предложенную психоаналитиком тему, не пытаясь при этом сосредоточиться. Таким образом, согласно теоретическим положениям Фрейда, мысль будет неосознанно двигаться в сторону того, что значимо (того, что беспокоит), преодолевая сопротивление вследствие отсутствия сосредоточенности [77] . С точки зрения Фрейда, никакая появляющаяся мысль не является случайной — она всегда есть производное от процессов, происходивших (и происходящих) с пациентом. Любая ассоциация может стать принципиально важной для установления причин возникновения заболевания [76] . Применение данного метода позволило полностью отказаться от использования гипноза на сеансах [77] и, по словам самого Фрейда, послужило толчком к становлению и развитию психоанализа [76] .
Итогом совместной работы Фрейда и Брейера стала публикация книги « Исследования истерии » ( 1895 ). Основной клинический случай, описываемый в данной работе — случай Анны О — дал толчок к возникновению одной из важнейших для фрейдизма идей — концепции трансфера (переноса) [78] (данная идея впервые возникла у Фрейда, когда он размышлял над случаем Анны О, бывшей на тот момент пациенткой Брейера, заявившей последнему, что ждёт от него ребёнка и имитировавшей в состоянии невменяемости роды [79] ), а также лёг в основу появившихся позднее представлений об эдиповом комплексе и инфантильной (детской) сексуальности [80] . Обобщая полученные в ходе сотрудничества данные, Фрейд писал: «Наши истеричные больные страдают воспоминаниями. Их симптомы являются остатками и символами воспоминаний об известных (травматических) переживаниях» [81] . Публикацию «Исследований истерии» многие исследователи называют «днём рождения» психоанализа [64] [82] [71] . Стоит отметить, что к моменту выхода труда в печать отношения Фрейда с Брейером окончательно прервались. Причины расхождения учёных в профессиональных взглядах по сей день остаются не до конца ясными; близкий друг Фрейда и его биограф Эрнест Джонс считал, что Брейер категорически не принимал мнение Фрейда о важной роли сексуальности в этиологии истерии, и это явилось основной причиной их разрыва [64] .
Ранний этап развития психоанализа
Многие уважаемые венские врачи — наставники и коллеги Фрейда — отвернулись от него вслед за Брейером. Заявление о том, что именно подавленные воспоминания (мысли, идеи) сексуального характера лежат в основе истерии, спровоцировало скандал и сформировало крайне негативное отношение к Фрейду со стороны интеллектуальной элиты [83] . В это же время начала зарождаться многолетняя дружба учёного с Вильгельмом Флиссом , берлинским отоларингологом , который некоторое время посещал его лекции [84] . Флисс вскоре стал очень близок Фрейду, отвергнутому академическим сообществом, утратившему старых друзей и отчаянно нуждавшемуся в поддержке и понимании. Дружба с Флиссом превратилась для него в подлинную страсть, способную сравниться с любовью к жене [85] .
23 октября 1896 года умер Якоб Фрейд, чью смерть Зигмунд переживал особенно остро: на фоне охватившего Фрейда отчаяния и ощущения одиночества у него начал развиваться невроз. Именно по этой причине Фрейд решил применить анализ к самому себе, исследуя детские воспоминания при помощи метода свободных ассоциаций. Этот опыт заложил основы психоанализа [86] . Ни один из прежних методов не был пригоден для достижения нужного результата, и тогда Фрейд обратился к изучению собственных сновидений [87] . Самоанализ Фрейда был крайне болезненным и проходил весьма тяжело, однако оказался продуктивным и важным для его дальнейших изысканий:
“All these revelations [found love for mother and hatred for father] at the first moment caused“ such intellectual paralysis, which I could not imagine ”. He is unable to work; the resistance that he had met before in his patients, now Freud is experiencing in his own skin. But the “conquistador conqueror” did not flinch and continued on his way, resulting in two fundamental discoveries: the role of dreams and the Oedipus complex , the foundations and the cornerstones of Freud's theory of the human psyche. ”
- Josep Ramon Casafon. Sigmund Freud [88]
In the period from 1897 to 1899, Freud worked hard on the work, which was later considered the most important of his work - "The Interpretation of Dreams " ( 1900 , m . Die Traumdeutung ). An important role in preparing the book for printing was played by Wilhelm Fliess, to whom Freud sent the written chapters for evaluation — it was precisely with the submission of Fliss from the “Interpretation” that many details were removed [89] . Immediately after the publication of the book, the book did not have any significant impact on the public and received only a minor reputation [45] . The psychiatric community generally ignored the release of the “Interpretation of Dreams” [90] . The importance of this work for a scientist throughout his life remained indisputable - so, in the preface to the third English edition in 1931, the seventy-five- year -old Freud wrote: “This book <...> fully complies with my current ideas ... contains the most valuable of the discoveries that are supportive fate allowed me to commit. Insights of this kind fall to the lot of a person, but only once in a lifetime ” [91] .
According to Freud's assumptions, dreams have a clear and hidden content. Explicit content is directly what a person talks about, remembering his dream. The hidden content is the hallucinatory fulfillment of a certain desire of the dreamer disguised by certain visual pictures with the active participation of the Self , which seeks to circumvent the censorship limitations of the Superego which suppresses this desire [92] . The interpretation of dreams, according to Freud, lies in the fact that, based on free associations that are searched for individual parts of dreams, certain substitute views can be called up that open the way to the true (hidden) content of sleep. Thus, thanks to the interpretation of the fragments of the dream, its general meaning is reconstructed. The process of interpretation is a “translation” of the apparent content of sleep into the hidden thoughts that initiated it [93] .
Freud expressed the opinion that the images perceived by the dreamer are the result of dream work, expressed in displacement (irrelevant views acquire a high value originally inherent in another phenomenon [94] ), condensation (in one view the set of values coinciding, formed through associative chains [94 ] ) and substitution (the replacement of specific thoughts with symbols and images [95] ), which turn the hidden content of the dream into explicit. A person's thoughts are transformed into certain images and symbols through the process of visual and symbolic representation [96] - regarding the dream, Freud called this the primary process [97] . Further, these images are transformed into some meaningful content (a dream plot appears) - this is how recycling works ( secondary process ). However, recycling may not happen - in this case, the dream turns into a stream of strangely intertwined images, becomes steep and fragmentary [96] .
“Since 1902, several young doctors have gathered around me with a definite intention to study psychoanalysis, put it into practice and distribute it. <...> I had meetings at certain evenings, conducted discussions in the prescribed manner, tried to understand the seemingly strange new field of research and arouse interest in it. <...>
The small circle soon grew, changing its composition several times over the course of several years. In general, I can admit that in terms of the wealth and diversity of talents, he was hardly inferior to the headquarters of any clinical teacher. ”
Despite the very cool reaction of the scientific community to the “Interpretation of Dreams” output, Freud gradually began to form around himself a group of like-minded people interested in his theories and views. Freud began to be taken occasionally in psychiatric circles, sometimes using his techniques in his work; medical journals began publishing reviews of his writings. Since 1902, the scientist regularly took in his home interested in the development and dissemination of psychoanalytic ideas of doctors, as well as artists and writers [99] . The weekly meeting began with one of Freud's patients, Wilhelm Steckel , who had successfully completed his neurosis treatment before; it was Steckel who in one of the letters offered Freud to meet at his house to discuss his work, to which the doctor agreed, inviting Steckel himself and several particularly interested listeners - Max Kahane , Rudolf Reuter and Alfred Adler . The formed club was named the “Psychological Society on Wednesdays”; his meetings were held until 1908 . For six years, the society has acquired a sufficiently large number of students, whose composition has changed regularly. It was steadily gaining popularity: “It turned out that psychoanalysis gradually aroused interest and found friends, proved that there are scientists who are ready to recognize it” [100] . Thus, the members of the “Psychological Society”, which later became the most famous, were Alfred Adler (member of the society since 1902), (since 1903), Otto Rank , Isidor Zaderg (both since 1906), Max Eitingon , Ludwig Biswanger and Carl Abraham (all from 1907), Abraham Brill , Ernest Jones and Shandor Ferenczi (all from 1908). On April 15, 1908, the society was reorganized and received a new name - [101] .
The development of the “Psychological Society” and the growth of the popularity of psychoanalysis ideas coincided with one of the most productive periods in Freud’s work — his books “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life ” ( 1901 , where one of the important aspects of the theory of psychoanalysis, namely, reservations ) was published “ Wit and his relation to the unconscious ” and “ Three essays on the theory of sexuality ” (both 1905 ) [102] . The popularity of Freud as a scientist and medical practitioner grew steadily: “Freud's private practice increased so that it took up the entire working week. Very few of his patients, both then and later, were residents of Vienna. Most of the patients came from Eastern Europe : Russia , Hungary , Poland , Romania , etc. ” [103] Freud's ideas began to gain popularity abroad - interest in his works was particularly pronounced in the Swiss city of Zurich , where since 1902 psychoanalytic concepts have been actively were used in psychiatry by Eigen Bleuler and his colleague Carl Gustav Jung , who were involved in schizophrenia research. Jung, who highly appreciated Freud’s ideas and admired himself, in 1906 published The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, which was based on his own development of Freud’s concepts. The latter, having received this work from Jung, highly appreciated it, and between the two scholars began a correspondence that lasted almost seven years. Freud and Yung first met in person in 1907 — the young researcher was greatly impressed by Freud, who, in turn, believed that Jung was destined to become his scientific heir and continue the development of psychoanalysis [104] .
In 1908, the official psychoanalytic congress in Salzburg took place - rather modestly organized, it took only one day, but was in fact the first international event in the history of psychoanalysis. Among the speakers, in addition to Freud himself, there were 8 people who presented their works; the meeting gathered only 40 with a small audience. It was during this speech that Freud first presented one of the five major clinical cases - the “Man-rat” medical history (also the translation of “Man with rats”), or psychoanalysis of obsessive-compulsive states [105] . The real success, which opened the way for international recognition to psychoanalysis, was Freud's invitation to the USA - in 1909, Granville Stanley Hall invited him to give a course of lectures at Clark University ( Worcester , Massachusetts ). Freud's lectures were received with great enthusiasm and interest, and the scientist was awarded the honorary degree of doctor. More and more patients from all over the world sought his advice [90] . Upon his return to Vienna, Freud continued to publish, publishing several works, including The Family Neurotic Novel and Analysis of a Five-Year-Old Boy's Phobia [106] . Inspired by the successful reception in the USA and the growing popularity of psychoanalysis, Freud and Jung decided to organize a second psychoanalytic congress, held in Nuremberg on March 30-31, 1910 . The scientific part of the congress was successful, unlike the unofficial one. On the one hand, the International Psychoanalytic Association [107] was established, but at the same time, Freud's closest associates began to divide into opposing groups [108] .
Split psychoanalytic community
Despite the differences within the psychoanalytic community, Freud did not stop his own scientific activities - in 1910 he published " Five lectures on psychoanalysis " (which he read at Clark University) and several other small works. In the same year, the book “ Leonardo da Vinci. A childhood memory , dedicated to the great Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci [109] .
with Alfred Adler
“I believe that the views of Adler are incorrect, and therefore dangerous for the future development of psychoanalysis. They are scientific errors due to erroneous methods; however, these are venerable errors. Although rejecting the content of Adler’s views, one can recognize their consistency and importance ” [110] .
After the second psychoanalytic congress in Nuremberg, the conflicts that had matured by that time had sharpened to the limit, initiating a split in the ranks of Freud's closest associates and colleagues. The first of Freud's inner circle was Alfred Adler, whose disagreements with the founding father of psychoanalysis began as early as 1907, when his work “ Investigation of Organ Inferiority ” was published, which caused outrage among many psychoanalysts [111] . In addition, Adler was greatly disturbed by the attention Freud paid to his protégé Jung; In this regard, Jones (characterizing Adler as a “gloomy and picky person whose behavior fluctuates between stinginess and gloominess”) wrote: “Any unsupported children's complexes could find expression in rivalry and jealousy for his [Freud] favor. The requirement to be a “beloved child” also had an important material motive, since the economic situation of young analysts depended for the most part on those patients whom Freud could refer to them ” [112] . Because of the preferences of Freud, who staked on Jung, and Adler's ambition, the relationship between them was rapidly deteriorating. At the same time, Adler constantly quarreled with other psychoanalysts, defending the priority of his ideas [110] .
Freud and Adler disagreed on a number of provisions. Firstly, Adler considered the striving for power to be the main motive determining human behavior, while Freud assigned the main role to sexuality . Secondly, the focus of Adler’s personality research was on the social environment of a person — Freud paid the most attention to the unconscious [113] . Thirdly, Adler considered the Oedipus complex to be a fabrication, and this completely contradicted the ideas of Freud [110] . However, rejecting ideas that were fundamental to Adler, the founder of psychoanalysis recognized their importance and partial validity. Despite this, Freud was forced to expel Adler from the psychoanalytic society, obeying the demands of the rest of his participants [111] . The example of Adler was followed by his closest ally and friend, Wilhelm Stekel [110] .
with Carl Gustav Jung
“It may turn out that we overestimate Jung and his work in the future. He looks unfavorable to the public, turning away from me, that is, from his past. But in general, my judgment on this issue is very similar to yours. I do not expect any immediate success, but anticipate the incessant struggle. Anyone who promises liberation from the severity of sex to humanity will be welcomed as a hero, and he will be allowed to carry any nonsense that he pleases ” [114] .
A short time later, Carl Gustav Jung left the circle of Freud's closest associates - their relationship was finally spoiled by diverging scientific views; Jung did not accept Freud’s position that repression was always explained by sexual trauma, and he was also actively interested in mythological images, spiritualistic phenomena and occult theories, which greatly irritated Freud [115] . Moreover, Jung contested one of the main points of Freud's theory: he considered the unconscious not to be an individual phenomenon, but a legacy of ancestors — all people who ever lived in the world, that is, considered it as a “ collective unconscious ” [111] . Jung did not accept Freud's views on libido : if for the latter, this concept meant psychic energy fundamental to manifestations of sexuality directed at various objects [116] , then for Jung, libido was simply a designation of total tension [117] . The final break between the two scientists occurred after Jung published The Symbols of Transformation ( 1912 ), in which Freud's main postulates were criticized and challenged, and proved extremely painful for both of them [118] . In addition to the fact that Freud lost a very close friend, the disagreement with Jung, in which he initially saw the successor, the continuer of the development of psychoanalysis, became a strong blow for him. The loss of support for the whole Zurich school also played its role - with the departure of Jung, the psychoanalytic movement lost a number of talented scientists [119] .
In 1913, Freud completed a long and very difficult work on the fundamental work " Totem and Taboo ". “Since the writing of The Interpretation of Dreams, I have not worked on anything with such confidence and enthusiasm,” he wrote about this book. Among other things, the work on the psychology of primitive peoples was considered by Freud as one of the largest scientific counter-arguments of the Zurich school of psychoanalysis headed by Jung: “Totem and Taboo”, according to the author, was to completely separate his inner circle from dissidents [120] . About the latter, Freud subsequently wrote the following:
“Both the movements that are regressing and departing from psychoanalysis [Adler’s“ individual psychology ”and Jung’s“ analytic psychology ”], which I now have to compare, also reveal a similarity in the fact that with the help of sublime principles, as if from the point of view of the eternal, they defend profitable for them prejudices. For Adler, this role is played by the relativity of all knowledge and the right of the individual to dispose of scientific material individually using artistic means. Jung cries about the cultural and historical right of young people to throw off the shackles that they wished to impose on her a tyrannical old age, numb in its views. ”
- Sigmund Freud. "Essay on the history of psychoanalysis" [121]
Disagreements and quarrels with former colleagues extremely tired scientist. As a result (at the suggestion of Ernest Jones), he decided to create an organization whose main goals would be to preserve the fundamental fundamentals of psychoanalysis and protect the personality of Freud himself from the aggressive attacks of his opponents. Freud accepted the proposal to unite a trusted circle of analysts with great enthusiasm; in a letter to Jones, he confessed: “My imagination immediately captured your idea of creating a secret council made up of the best and most trusted people among us who would take care of the further development of psychoanalysis when I was not ...” [122] . The society came into being on May 25, 1913 - in addition to Freud, Ferenczi, Abraham, Jones, Rank and [123] were included in it. A little later, at the initiative of Freud himself, Max Eitingon joined the group [124] . The existence of a community called the “Committee” was kept secret, its actions were not publicized [123] .
War and post-war years
The First World War began , and Vienna fell into decay, which naturally affected Freud’s practice. The economic situation of the scientist rapidly deteriorated, with the result that he developed a depression [125] . The newly formed Committee was the last circle of like-minded people in Freud's life: “We became the last associates that he was ever destined to have,” recalled Ernest Jones [124] . Freud, who was experiencing financial difficulties and had enough free time due to the decreased number of patients, resumed his scientific activity: “<...> Freud closed in on himself and turned to scientific work. <...> Science personified his work, his passion, his rest and was a saving means from external adversities and internal experiences ” [126] . The following years became very productive for him - in 1914, the works “Moses“ Michelangelo ”,“ Towards an Introduction to Narcissism ”and“ An Essay on the History of Psychoanalysis ”were published from his pen. In parallel, Freud worked on a series of essays that Ernest Jones calls the most profound and important in the scientific activities of a scientist - “Attractions and Their Fate”, “Repression”, “Unconscious”, “Metapsychological Addition to the Dream Study” and “Sadness and Melancholy [127] .
In the same period, Freud returned to the use of the previously abandoned concept of “ metapsychology ” (for the first time this term was used in a letter to Fliss of 1896 [128] ). It has become one of the key in his theory. The word "metapsychology" Freud understood the theoretical foundation of psychoanalysis, as well as a specific approach to the study of the psyche [128] . According to the scientist, a psychological explanation can be considered complete (that is, “metapsychological” [129] ) only when it establishes the existence of a conflict or relationship between the levels of the psyche ( topography ), determines the amount and type of energy expended ( economy ) and the balance of forces in the mind that can be directed to work together or confront each other ( dynamics ) [130] . A year later, the work Metapsychology was published, explaining the main points of his teaching [127] .
With the end of the war, Freud's life changed only for the worse - he was forced to spend the money set aside for his old age, the patients became even smaller, one of his daughters, Sofia, died of the flu . Nevertheless, the scientific activity of the scientist did not stop - he wrote the works " On the Other Side of the Pleasure Principle " ( 1920 ), "The Psychology of the Masses " ( 1921 ), " I and It " ( 1923 ) [131] . In April 1923, Freud was diagnosed with a tumor of the palate; the operation to remove it was unsuccessful and almost cost the scientist a life [132] . Subsequently, he had to go through another 32 operations [133] . Soon the cancer began to spread, and Freud was removed part of the jaw - from that moment he used a prosthesis that was extremely painful, left unhealed wounds, in addition to everything else, which prevented him from speaking. The darkest period in the life of Freud came: he could no longer give lectures, because the listeners did not understand him. Until his death, his daughter Anna cared about him: “It was she who went to congresses and conferences where she read out the texts of speeches prepared by her father” [134] . A series of unfortunate events for Freud continued: at the age of four years his grandson Heinele died from tuberculosis (the son of the late Sophia), and some time later his close friend Karl Abraham died; Sadness and grief began to take hold of Freud, the words about his approaching demise began to appear in his letters more and more often [135] .
Last years of life and death
In the summer of 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize for his significant contribution to science and literature, which brought great satisfaction to the scientist and contributed to the spread of psychoanalysis in Germany. However, this event turned out to be overshadowed by another loss: at the age of ninety-five, Freud's mother Amalia died of tuberculosis [21] . The most terrible trials for a scientist were just beginning - in 1933 Adolf Hitler was elected the chancellor of Germany, and national socialism became the state ideology. The new government adopted a series of discriminatory laws against the Jews, and books that contradicted Nazi ideology were destroyed. Along with the works of Heine , Marx , Mann , Kafka and Einstein , Freud's works were also banned. The Psychoanalytic Association was dissolved by order of the government, many of its members were repressed, and funds were confiscated. Freud’s many comrades-in-arms strongly urged him to leave the country, but he flatly refused [136] .
In 1938 , after the accession of Austria to Germany and the persecution of Jews by the Nazis that followed, the situation of Freud became much more complicated. After the arrest of Anna’s daughter and questioning by the Gestapo, Freud decided to leave the Third Reich and leave for England. It was not easy to carry out our plans: in exchange for the right to leave the country, the authorities demanded an impressive amount of money, which Freud did not have. The scientist had to resort to the help of influential friends to get permission to emigrate. So, his longtime friend, William Bullitt , then the US ambassador to France, petitioned Freud before President Franklin Roosevelt . The German ambassador to France, Count von Welzeck, also joined the petitions. Together, Freud received the right to leave the country, but the question of "debt to the German government" remained unresolved. His longtime friend (as well as the patient and the student), Princess Marie Bonaparte , who lent the necessary funds [137], helped Freud help him.
In the summer of 1939, Freud suffered particularly badly from a progressive disease. The scientist turned to doctor Max Shura, who had been caring for him, recalling the earlier promise to help him die. At first, Anna, who did not depart a step from her sick father, opposed his wish, but soon agreed [138] . On September 23, Schur administered a dose of morphine to Freud, sufficient to interrupt the life of an old man weakened by illness. At three in the morning Sigmund Freud died. The body of the scientist was cremated at Golders Green , and the dust was placed in an ancient Etruscan vase donated to Freud Marie Bonaparte [139] . The vase with the ashes of a scientist stands in the mausoleum of Ernest George ( eng. Ernest George Mausoleum ) in Golders Green [140] . On the night of January 1, 2014, unknown persons snuck into the crematorium, where there was a vase with the ashes of Martha and Sigmund Freud, and broke it. After that, the supervisors of the crematorium moved the vase with the ashes of the spouses to a more reliable place [141] .
Major contribution to science
Among the achievements of Freud, the most important are the development of a three-component structural model of the psyche (consisting of " It ", " I " and " Super-I "), the allocation of specific phases of psychosexual personality development , the creation of the theory of the Oedipus complex , the psychologization of the concept " Unconscious ", the discovery of transfer and counter-transfer , as well as the development of therapeutic methods such as the method of free association and the interpretation of dreams .
One of the main scientific achievements of Freud is the development of the structural model of the human psyche that was original for its time. In the course of numerous clinical observations, the scientist suggested that there is a confrontation between the drives, finding that socially determined prohibitions often limit the manifestation of biological impulses. Based on the data, Freud developed the concept of mental organization, identifying three structural elements of personality: “ It ” (or “Eid”, German Das es ), “ I ” (or “Ego”, German Ego ) and “ Super-I ” (or “Super-Ego”, Das Über-Ich ) [142] . “ It ”, according to the Freudian concept, means an unknown force that controls the actions of a person and serves as the basis for two other manifestations of personality, containing energy for them [143] . “ I ” is, in essence, the person’s personality, the personification of his mind, “I” controls all processes taking place in the individual’s psyche, and its main function is to maintain the relationship between instincts and actions [144] . “ Super-I ” is a psychic instance, which includes “ parental authority , self-observation, ideals , conscience — in the metaphorical meaning“ Super-I ”acts as an inner voice, censor , judge ” [145] .
Another important achievement of Freud is the discovery of the psychosexual phases of human development . In the most general sense, the term “psychosexual development” refers to “the movement of a child from infantile ways of satisfying drives to more mature ones, which ultimately allows them to have sexual contact with a person of the opposite sex” [146] . Psychosexual development is extremely important for the formation of the personality - it is during the passage of all its stages that the prerequisites for future sexual, emotional and communicative problems are laid [146] . Freud identified five such stages: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital [147] .
The basis for the whole psychoanalytic theory of Freud was the concept of the Oedipal complex , the essence of which lies in the designation of the child's ambivalent attitude towards its parents; the term itself describes the manifestation by man of unconscious drives, in which love borders on hatred of parents [148] . In Freud's understanding, a boy is erotically tied to his mother and seeks to possess her, and perceives his father as a contender and an obstacle to the realization of this desire (the girl’s situation is reversed and is called the “ Electra Complex ”) [149] . The Oedipus complex develops at the age of three to six years, and its successful resolution (identification with the parent of the same sex, or “ identification with the aggressor ” [150] ) is crucial for the child. The resolution (“destruction”) of the complex leads to a transition from the phallic stage of development to the latent one and is the foundation for the formation of the “Super-I”; parental authority, therefore, “moves” inside the psyche - the Oedipus-resolved complex becomes the main source of guilt feelings (which the “Super-I” affects the “I”) and simultaneously marks the end of the individual's infantile sexuality [151] .
Important for the development of Freudianism was the description by the scientist of the defense mechanisms functioning in the human psyche. According to Freud, protection is a psychological mechanism for confronting anxiety, which, unlike constructive actions aimed at resolving a problem situation, distorts or denies reality, notes Freiger and Faydimen [152] . Defense mechanisms relate to the “I” of a person who has to confront the mass of various threats from the outside world and the desires of “It”, which are held back by the “Super-I”; Freud assigned a significant role to their research, but did not attempt to classify them - his daughter Anna took it upon herself, in the work “Me and the Defense Mechanisms” ( 1936 ) systematizing the mental phenomena previously described to the scientist [153] . Freud described the following defense mechanisms: repression , projection , substitution , rationalization , reactive formation , regression , sublimation and denial .
The cornerstone in the theory of Freud was the discovery of the unconscious - part of the human psyche, in terms of volume, content and principles of functioning different from consciousness . In topographic theory, the unconscious is considered one of the systems of the mental apparatus. After the emergence of the three-component model of consciousness (“It”, “I” and “Super-I”), the unconscious is expressed exclusively with the help of an adjective , that is, it reflects the mental quality equally characteristic of each of the three structures of the psyche [154] . The main features of the unconscious, according to Freud, are as follows: the content of the unconscious is a representation of drives ; the content of the unconscious is governed by primary processes, in particular, by coagulation and displacement ; fueled by the energy of the drives, the contents of the unconscious tend to return to consciousness, manifested in behavior (the return of repressed content), but in fact they can appear in the preconscious mind only in the form of “Super-I” distorted by censorship; in the unconscious, children's desires are very often committed [155] .
One of the main tools of the psychoanalyst in working with a patient is the method of free association developed by Freud. Free associations are statements based on the arbitrary presentation of any thoughts about anything. The eponymous method underlies psychoanalysis and is one of its main techniques [76] . In psychoanalysis, free associations are considered as a signal of the presence of ideas or fantasies that cannot be realized by a person without the analytical help of a psychologist, because they are in the preconscious mind [156] . Any association can be crucial for establishing the causes of the disease [76] . The use of this method made it possible to completely abandon the use of hypnosis in sessions [77] and, in the words of Freud himself, was the impetus for the formation and development of psychoanalysis [76] .
Another important tool of the psychoanalyst in his work is the technique of dream interpretation . The interpretation of dreams is the process of revealing the meaning and meaning of dreams, aimed at deciphering their unconscious content. According to Freud, dreams are mental phenomena that are a reflection of something existing in the human soul, which the dreamer does not realize; thus, the individual never realizes the true meaning of his dream. The work of the psychoanalyst, accordingly, comes down to revealing this meaning to a person [157] . By building free associations to individual parts of a dream, a person reveals his true nature, unconsciously focusing on his real content. The process of interpretation consists in translating the explicit content of the dream (that is, its plot) into hidden content [158] .
Equally important for psychoanalytic therapy is the phenomenon of transfer and counter-transfer, discovered by Freud. Transfer - a phenomenon observed in the relationship between two people and manifested in the transfer of feelings and affections to each other. In the process of psychoanalysis, transfer is characterized as a shift of unconscious ideas, desires, inclinations, stereotypes of thinking and behavior from one individual to another, and the experience of the past becomes a model of interaction in the present [159] . The term “counter-transfer”, respectively, is understood to mean the reverse transfer process, namely, the transfer by the analyst to his client of an emotional attitude towards a person from his past [160] .
Scientific Heritage
The Works of Sigmund Freud
- 1895 Hysteria Studies
- 1896 On the etiology of hysteria
- 1899 Interpretation of dreams
- 1901 Psychopathology of everyday life
- 1905 Three essays on the theory of sexuality
- 1910 About psychoanalysis
- 1913 Totem and Taboo
- 1915 Attractions and their fate
- 1916 Sadness and Melancholy
- 1917 Conducting psychoanalysis. Lectures
- 1920 Beyond the Pleasure Principle
- 1921 The psychology of the masses and the analysis of the human "I"
- 1923 I and It
- 1927 The Future of One Illusion
- 1930 Discontent with culture
Freud's ideological forerunners
The development of Freud's psychoanalytic concept was greatly influenced by many different scientists and researchers. First of all, researchers note the impact of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin , the biogenetic law of Ernst Haeckel , the “cathartic method” of Joseph Breyer, and Jean Charcot 's theory of the effects of hypnosis for the treatment of hysteria. Many ideas Freud learned from the works of Gottfried Leibniz (in particular, from his teachings on monads - the smallest spiritual and mental particles), Carl Gustav Carus (namely, the assumption that unconscious mental activity manifests through experiences and dreams), Edward Hartmann and his The Philosophy of the Unconscious, Johann Friedrich Herbart (who asserted that certain human inclinations could be ousted beyond the threshold of consciousness) and Arthur Schopenhauer (who singled out the "will to live", which Freud designated as Eros) [161] . The German philosopher and psychologist Theodore Lipps had a significant influence on the formation of Freud’s views, devoting several works to unconscious mental processes [162] . Psychoanalysis has also been influenced by the ideas of Gustav Fechner - from his designs they originate the concept of the principle of pleasure, mental energy, and interest in the study of aggression [163] .
In addition, Freud was influenced by the ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche , Franz Brentano and many eminent scientists - for example, Ernst Brücke . Many of the original concepts of their time, now traditionally associated with the name of Freud, were in fact partially borrowed - for example, Goethe and Schiller [164] explored the unconscious as an area of the psyche; one of the elements of the psychic organization, “It”, was borrowed by Freud from the German physician [165] ; the theory of the Oedipus complex - inspired by the work of Sophocles "King Oedipus" [148] ; the free association method was not born as an independent method, but during the processing of the approach of Joseph Breuer [74] ; The idea of dream interpretation was also not new - Aristotle expressed the first ideas about their symbolism [166] .
The influence and significance of Freud's ideas
Researchers point out that the influence of Freud’s ideas on Western civilization of the 20th century was deep and durable — Larry Kjell ( Ph.D. , associate professor at the [167] ) and Daniel Ziegler (Ph.D., dean of the Villanova University Graduate School [ 167] ) note that "in the whole history of mankind, very few ideas have had such a wide and powerful impact." According to these authors, the main merit of a scientist is the creation of the first comprehensive theory of personality, the development of a system of clinical observations (based on his own analysis and therapeutic experience), the formation of an original method of treatment of neurotic disorders that cannot be investigated in any other way [10] . (Ph.D., founder and president of the [168] ) and James Feidimen (Ph.D., lecturer at the and Stanford University [168] ) call Freud's scientific views radical and innovative for its time, arguing that the ideas of the scientist continue to have a significant impact on psychology, medicine, sociology, anthropology, literature and art. Freyder and Faydimen point out that a number of Freud's discoveries — for example, the recognition of the importance of dreams and the discovery of the energy of unconscious processes — are now generally recognized, although many other aspects of his theory are actively criticized . Researchers conclude: “Regardless of time, Freud is a figure in psychology to be reckoned with” [7] .
The well-known Russian psychologist Mikhail Yaroshevsky was also of the opinion that Freud's work determined the direction of the development of psychology in the 20th century [8] , and the psychotherapy of his time learned the lessons of the scientist, “selecting all the exciting creative thought” [169] . Carlos Nemirovsky , a psychiatrist, a member of the Association of Psychoanalysis of Buenos Aires and the International Association of Psychoanalysis, calls Freud a tireless researcher, enthusiast far from conformism , and writes: “Today we can complement, challenge or change accents in Freud’s legacy, but still his method — his approach to research — continues to exist with only minor changes. ” The French psychoanalyst , in turn, argues: "No orthodox follower of Freud, although he made a significant contribution to science, is not able to offer anything fundamentally new" [170] .
One of the brightest followers of the scientist, the French psychologist and philosopher Jacques Lacan , characterized the teachings of Freud as the " Copernican coup" [171] . Freud’s ally and student Shandor Ferenci , describing the scientist’s influence on medicine, wrote: “Oddly enough, but before Freud, researchers considered it almost immoral to consider sexual problems and the psychological side of love relationships”; it was this that led Freud to rethink the practice and theory of therapy, completely failing in attempts to treat neuroses. Ferenczi noted that the most important achievement of a scientist is the creation of a specific language and technology for the study of the unconscious, which help in the process of interpreting dreams and neurotic, psychotic symptoms in everyday life. Like Lacan, Ferenczi calls Freud's discoveries a "great coup", comparing them with the introduction of methods of percussion , radiology , bacteriology and chemistry into medicine. The researcher ends the article with the words: “Freud blasted a strict demarcation line between the sciences of nature and spirit. <...> The influence of Freud on medicine had a profound impact on the development of this science. It is possible that the desire for its development existed before, but the actual implementation required the appearance of a person of such importance as Freud ” [172] .
The Russian philosopher Sergey Mareev suggested that Freudianism can be considered as one of the three main systems of the 20th century’s worldview, along with Marxism and Christianity ; Mareyev writes that the influence of Freud was mostly manifested in psychology and philosophy. According to the researcher, Freud’s contribution to philosophy lies in proposing a fundamentally new statement stating that “the spiritual life of a person is not at all a stream of impressions and reactions, but contains a certain substance, a constant that not only is not influenced by external impressions, but on the contrary, it defines them from within, giving them a value that is completely inexplicable from either the present or past experience. ” Thus, Mareev explains, Freud challenged the concept that dominates the empirical science of the soul as an intangible beginning — respectively, the founding father of psychoanalysis restored the concept of “soul” to a strictly scientific meaning (albeit partially re-formed); as a result, this concept went beyond the framework of philosophy alone, to which it was previously attributed by empirical scientists [173] .
Another domestic researcher, psychologist Lyudmila Obukhova , writes that the main secret of Freud’s enormous influence lies in the dynamic theory of personal development he developed, which proved that “for the development of man, the other person is of prime importance, not the objects that surround him”. Referring to James Watson , Obukhova noted that Freud was well ahead of his time and (along with Charles Darwin ) "destroyed the narrow, rigid boundaries of the common sense of his time and cleared the new territory to study human behavior" [174] . E. Koryakina points out Freud's significant influence on the development of culturological thought in the 20th century - the main contribution of a scientist in this field is to create an original culture concept, according to which all cultural values are a product of sublimation, or, in other words, the process of subordination of energy to culture »And redirecting it from sexual to spiritual (artistic) goals. Koryakin writes: “Culture, in its understanding of psychoanalytic theory, is based on coercion and prohibition of drives, it is a mechanism for suppressing primary desires that threaten society, it directs instincts, including aggressiveness, to a different course, and that’s why culture, from the point of view Freud is the source of the mental ill health of the individual. ” [175]
Freud had a significant impact on the evolution of the theories of personality - his views on human development, united in the framework of psychoanalysis, are still well known in psychology. Few ideas in the history of human civilization had such a wide and deep influence as Freudian [176] . The popularity of Freud's concepts continues to expand and penetrate into various scientific fields. As Jerome Neu (Ph.D., professor [177] ) noted, “Freud still has a lot to learn” [178] .
Criticism
In the West, Freudian psychoanalysis was already criticized by its very appearance, in particular by phenomenologically oriented authors, such as K. Jaspers , A. Kronfeld , K. Schneider , G.-J. Weitbrecht and many others [179] . Initially, the rejection of Freud's concept by European psychiatrists was decisive and widespread - with a few exceptions, such as E. Bleuler and V. P. Serbsky . Most psychiatrists considered the Freud school to be a marginal sect engaged in psychotherapy of neuroses, the very concept of which seemed to be a phantom - an undifferentiated team of somatoneurological disorders bordering the norm. However, in 1909, the "conquest" of Freud's USA began, and after World War II, German psychiatry [180] .
K. Jaspers treated with unconditional respect to Freud as a person and scientist and recognized the significant contribution of his theories to science, but considered the psychoanalytic direction of research as unproductive vulgarization of the ideas of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche , “the creation of myth-making fantasies”, and the psychoanalysis movement itself was sectarian [181] . While appreciating Freud's individual particular hypotheses and the empirical material collected by him, Jaspers nevertheless pointed to the fantastic nature of many of his generalizations [182] . Jaspers called psychoanalysis "popular psychology," allowing the average person to easily explain anything. Freudianism for K. Jaspers, as well as Marxism , is a surrogate of faith. According to Jaspers, “psychoanalysis bears a significant share of responsibility for the overall decline in the spiritual level of modern psychopathology ” [181] .
E. Krepelin also negatively related to Freudianism, asserting [183] :
Based on my many-sided experience, I argue that prolonged and persistent questioning of patients about their intimate experiences, as well as the usual strong stressing of sexual relations and related advice may entail the most adverse consequences.
- Krepelin, E. Introduction to a psychiatric clinic
Famous anthropologists Margaret Meade , Ruth Benedict , Cora Dubois and Franz Boas collected data that refute the assertion that universality of such basic Freudian notions as libido, instincts of destruction and death, and inborn infantile sexual stages and the Oedipal complex are universal. A number of these concepts were subjected to experimental verification, as a result of which they revealed that they were erroneous. Robert Sears , reviewing these experimental data in his work “A Review of Objective Research on Psychoanalytic Concepts,” concluded [184] :
Согласно критериям физических наук, психоанализ не является подлинной наукой… <…> Психоанализ основывается на методах, которые не позволяют повторить наблюдения, не обладают самоочевидностью, или денотативной валидностью, и несут на себе в некоторой степени отпечаток субъективных предубеждений наблюдателя. Когда такой метод используется для открытия психологических факторов, которые должны обладать объективной валидностью, он оказывается совершенно несостоятельным.
Психоанализ подвергся гонениям в Германии с приходом нацистов к власти и очень скоро оказался в подобном положении на территории СССР (хотя непродолжительное время теории Фрейда были там достаточно популярны). Психоанализ как научное направление в психологии появился в России ещё до 1917 года , его последователи выпускали собственный научный журнал, среди сторонников учения Фрейда были видные члены Российской академии наук . В Петрограде была организована специальная аналитическая группа для детей с невротическими расстройствами, к концу десятилетия успешно функционировали учебный институт, амбулаторная клиника и экспериментальная школа, основанные на психоаналитических принципах. Труды Фрейда активно переводились на русский язык. Одно из столичных высших учебных заведений занималось подготовкой психоаналитиков. Однако к середине 1920-х годов психоанализ оказался вытеснен из среды официальной науки [185] . Наиболее остро противоречия между сторонниками и противниками Фрейда проявились в ходе дискуссии о возможности объединения психоанализа с марксизмом :
«Объектом критики в ходе этих дебатов часто становился не сам Фрейд, а различные толкователи и интерпретаторы его идей. <…> Поэтому, чтобы составить обвинение против психоанализа, было совсем не трудно найти любое количество глуповатых идей, выдававшихся за фрейдистские, — например, утверждение некого аналитика (цитировавшееся в ходе одной из советских полемических кампаний против Фрейда) о том, что коммунистический лозунг „Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь!“ на самом деле является неосознанным проявлением гомосексуальности . Столь же грубые и упрощённые трактовки встречались и в сфере литературной критики, где психоанализ, казалось, мало чего смог добиться помимо поиска фаллических символов. Но ведь понятно, что такую сложную и многостороннюю теорию, как психоанализ, надо оценивать по её лучшим, а не худшим, проявлениям».
— Фрэнк Бреннер . «Бесстрашная мысль: Психоанализ в Советском Союзе» [185]
С 1930-х годов с точки зрения официальной советской психологической науки Фрейд стал «преступником № 1». Этому в значительной степени способствовала личная неприязнь к психоанализу Иосифа Сталина [186] . В Советском Союзе теории Фрейда отныне понимались исключительно «как грязные слова, ассоциирующиеся с сексуальной развращённостью». Для официальной идеологии фрейдизм был неприемлем ещё по одной причине: психоанализ рассматривал индивида изолированно, не учитывая его связи с обществом. Итог конфронтации был весьма печален: «Уже в 1930 году всякая активность советского психоаналитического движения была остановлена, и с этого момента упоминать фрейдистскую теорию разрешалось лишь в плане осуждения. Как и очень многие другие перспективные культурные тенденции, вызванные самой революцией, психоанализ был вырван с корнем и уничтожен сталинским террором» [185] .
Однако критика психоанализа была обусловлена не только политическими причинами. После смерти Фрейда в 1939 году горячие споры вокруг психоанализа и самого учёного не прекратились — напротив, они разгорелись с новой силой. Противоречивость в оценках вклада Фрейда в науку наблюдается и по сей день. Биолог и нобелевский лауреат Питер Медавар охарактеризовал психоанализ как «самое грандиозное интеллектуальное мошенничество двадцатого века» [16] . Философ науки Карл Поппер критически отзывался об учении Фрейда. Поппер утверждал, что теории психоанализа не обладают предсказательной силой и что невозможно поставить такой эксперимент, который бы мог их опровергнуть (то есть психоанализ нефальсифицируем ); следовательно, эти теории псевдонаучны [17] . Помимо Карла Поппера, идеи Фрейда критиковали Фредерик Крюс и Адольф Грюнбаум , отмечавшие недостаточность эмпирического базиса психоанализа и непроверяемость основных его положений; учёные называли фрейдизм построенным на спекулятивных рассуждениях и «озарениях» [15] .
Так, А. Грюнбаум указывал, что прочный терапевтический успех, на котором основывается утверждение Фрейда об этиологической доказательности метода свободных ассоциаций, никогда не имел места в действительности, что вынужден был признать Фрейд и в начале, и в самом конце своей карьеры, а временные терапевтические результаты вполне объяснимы не подлинной эффективностью этого метода, но эффектом плацебо . «Не слишком ли это просто, чтобы быть истиной — то, что некто может уложить психически озабоченного субъекта на кушетку и выявить этиологию её или его заболевания с помощью свободной ассоциации? Сравнительно с выяснением причин основных соматических заболеваний это выглядит почти чудом, если только истинно », — пишет А. Грюнбаум. Он отмечает, что за всё прошедшее столетие не было показано большей эффективности лечения психоанализом в сравнении с контрольной группой таких же пациентов, чьи вытеснения не были сняты. Грюнбаум подвергает сомнению эффективность метода свободных ассоциаций в определении причин как невротических симптомов, так и сновидений или ошибок и оговорок (и называет объединение первых, вторых и третьих, благодаря которому создаётся впечатление «похвальной всеохватываемости центральной теории вытеснения», «псевдо-объединением» и «сомнительной унификацией»). Он упоминает, что, согласно данным тщательных исследований, так называемые «свободные ассоциации» в действительности не свободны, но зависят от едва заметных подсказок психоаналитика пациенту и потому не могут надёжно ручаться за содержание предполагаемых вытеснений, которые ими якобы снимаются [187] .
Freud’s scientific legacy was criticized by Erich Fromm , who believed that a scientist under the influence of “ bourgeois materialism ” “could not imagine psychic powers that had no physiological source — hence Freud’s appeal to sexuality ”. Fromm was also skeptical about the structure of human personality put forward by Freud (“It”, “I” and “Super-I”), considering it hierarchical - that is, denying the possibility of a free existence of a person who is not under the yoke of society. Recognizing the merit of a scientist in the study of the unconscious , Fromm found Freud's view of this phenomenon too narrow - according to the founding father of psychoanalysis, the conflict between being and thinking is the conflict between thinking and infantile sexuality; Fromm considered such a conclusion erroneous, criticizing the very understanding of sexuality by Freud, who ignored it as a possible product of impulses due to socio-economic and cultural factors [12] . Another important “pillar” of psychoanalytic theory, the concept of the Oedipal complex, was also criticized by Fromm:
“Freud made the mistake of explaining the boy’s attachment to his mother through sexuality. Thus, Freud misinterpreted his discovery, did not understand that attachment to the mother is one of the deepest emotional connections (not necessarily sexual) rooted in the genuine (humanistic) existence of man. Another aspect of the Oedipal complex, which consists in the hostile attitude of the son to the father, was also misunderstood by Freud, who viewed the conflict as sexual, while its origins lie in the nature of the patriarchal society ": the other part of the Oedipal complex, that is, hostile rivalry with the father, culminating in the desire to kill him, is also a sure observation, which, however, does not have to be associated with attachment to the mother. Freud attaches to the universal significance of the line, characteristic only of the patriarchal society. In a patriarchal society, the son obeys the will of his father; he belongs to the father, and his fate is determined by the father. To be the heir of the father - that is, in a broader sense, to succeed - he must not only please the father, he must submit to him and replace his will with the will of his father. As you know, oppression leads to hatred, the desire to get rid of the oppressor and ultimately destroy it. This situation is clearly seen, for example, when the old peasant, as a dictator, controls his son, his wife, until he dies. If this does not happen soon, if the son, having reached the age of 30, 40, 50 years, still has to accept the supremacy of his father, then he will really hate him as an oppressor. Nowadays, this situation is largely mitigated: the father usually does not own the property that the son could inherit, since the promotion of young people depends largely on their abilities, and only in rare cases, for example, when owning a private business, does the father’s longevity in a subordinate position. Nevertheless, this situation arose not very long ago, and we can rightly say that for several thousand years a conflict between father and son occurred within the patriarchal society, based on the father’s control over the son and the son’s desire to get rid of this dictate. Freud saw this conflict, but did not understand that this was a feature of the patriarchal society, and interpreted it as a sexual rivalry between father and son. ”
- VM Leibin. “The Discoveries and Limitations of Freud's Theory” [12]
Erich Fromm essentially criticized every significant aspect of Freudian theory, including the concepts of transfer , narcissism , the nature and interpretation of dreams . Fromm argued that psychoanalytic theory was adapted to the needs of bourgeois society, “focusing on the problems of sex in reality diverted from criticism of society and, thus, was partly reactionary political. If the basis of all mental disorders is the inability of a person to solve his sexual problems, then there is no need to critically analyze the economic, social and political factors that stand in the way of developing individuality. On the other hand, political radicalism began to be viewed as a peculiar sign of neurosis, especially since Freud and his followers considered the liberal bourgeois a model of a mentally healthy person. Left or right radicalism began to be explained by the consequences of neurotic processes like the Oedipus complex, and political convictions that were different from those of the liberal middle class were declared neurotic in the first place ” [12] .
Robert Carroll, Ph.D., in his book The Skeptic's Dictionary, criticized the psychoanalytic concept of the unconscious that remembers childhood traumas as contradicting modern ideas about the work of implicit memory : “Psychoanalytic therapy is based in many ways on the search for what probably does not exist (repressed memories), an assumption that is probably mistaken (that children's experience is the cause of patient problems), and a therapeutic theory that has almost no chance of being correct (h translation of repressed memories to consciousness is an essential part of treatment) " [188] .
Leslie Stevenson , philosopher, honorary lecturer at St. Andrews University , who described Freud's concepts in detail in his book Ten Theories on Human Nature ( eng. Ten Theories of Human Nature , 1974 ), noted that supporters of Freudianism can “without difficulty in a derogatory way analyze the motivation of his critics ”—that is, write off to the unconscious resistance any attempts to doubt the truth of the concept they share. In essence, Freudianism is a closed system that neutralizes any evidence of fraud, and can be perceived as an ideology , the adoption of which is mandatory for every psychoanalyst. The empirical verification of Freud's psychoanalytic concept is an almost impossible task for several reasons: first, the consequences of a traumatic childhood are not always amenable to elimination; secondly, the “correct” theory can give bad results with its “wrong” use in clinical practice; thirdly, the criteria for recovery from neurotic diseases are not clearly defined [189] . Stephenson also notes:
“Psychoanalysis is rather not a set of scientific hypotheses that should be empirically tested, but primarily a way to understand people, to discern the meaning of their actions, mistakes, jokes, dreams, and neurotic symptoms. [...] Many Freudian concepts can be considered as an addition to the usual ways people understand each other in terms of everyday concepts - love, hate, fear, anxiety, rivalry, etc. And in an experienced psychoanalyst you can see someone who has gained a deep intuitive understanding springs of human motivation and mastered the art of interpreting the actions of these diverse complex mechanisms in specific situations, regardless of the theoretical views, which he holds ".
- L. Stevenson. “Ten Theories on Human Nature” [189]
Freud's own identity has also been seriously criticized. In particular, he was accused of "unscientific," argued that his clinical studies were often erroneous, and he himself showed sexism . In addition, the scientist was accused of laying down the psychological basis for almost any disease, including allergy or asthma [190] . The use of methods of psychoanalysis to literary works has been repeatedly criticized: interpretation of literary texts from the standpoint of Freudian theory, according to some researchers, stands on the “false and erroneous” assumption that the author’s unconscious thoughts and desires are expressed on paper, and many literary characters are nothing as a projection of the psyche of their creator [191] . Some opponents of Freud called him not a scientist, but a brilliant playwright, “ Shakespeare of the 20th century”, “in the dramas invented which fight the villain (“ It ”), the hero (“ Super-I ”) and everything revolves around sex” [186] .
According to research by the American Association of Psychoanalysts, despite the fact that psychoanalysis is widespread in many humanities , psychology departments (at least in the United States) refer to it only as a historical artifact [192] . A number of authors point out that from a scientific point of view, Freud's teaching is dead, and as a theory of development and as a therapeutic technique: no empirical evidence has been obtained for a person through the stages of psychosexual development, there has also been no evidence that transfers and catharsis are reasons for the effectiveness of psychoanalytic therapy. There is no evidence that psychoanalysis is a more productive method of treatment than other forms of psychotherapy. Harvard University Medical Department Professor Drew Western , for example, calls Freudian theory archaic and outdated [193] .
The well-known psychologist G. Yu. Ayzenk also studied the teachings of Freud. He came to the conclusion that convincing experimental support for Freudian theories did not appear [194] [195] [196] . Eysenck noted that for a long time "the superiority of psychoanalysis was simply assumed on the basis of pseudoscientific arguments without any objective evidence," and the cases from the practice described by Freud are not such evidence, since what he claimed as a "cure" in there was no cure for reality. In particular, the famous " wolf-man ", contrary to allegations about this, was not cured at all, because in fact the symptoms of his disorder persisted for the next 60 years of the patient’s life, during which he was constantly treated. The treatment was also unsuccessful for the “human rat”. The situation is similar to the well-known case of “curing” by Anna Breuer. Actually, as historians have shown, the diagnosis of hysteria exhibited by the patient was erroneous - the woman suffered from tuberculous meningitis and was in a hospital for a long time with symptoms of this disease [196] .
Based on many studies, Aysenck concludes that remission without treatment (“spontaneous remission”) develops in neurotic patients as often as a cure after psychoanalysis: about 67% of patients with severe symptoms recovered within two years. Based on the fact that psychoanalysis is not more effective than placebo , Aysenck concludes that the theory itself, which is its basis, is incorrect, and also that “it is completely unethical to prescribe it to patients, take money from them or train therapists for such an inefficient method” . In addition, Aysenck provides evidence that psychoanalysis can also have a negative effect on patients, worsen their psychological and physical condition [196] .
Books on Sigmund Freud
- Dadun, Roger. Freud. - M .: H.G.S., 1994. - 512 p. - ISBN 5-7588-0040-6 .
- Casafont, Josep Ramon. Sigmund Freud / lane. with isp. A. Berkova. - M .: AST, 2006. - 253 p. - (Biography and creativity). - ISBN 5-17-037281-7 .
- Jones, Ernest . The life and works of Sigmund Freud / Per. from English V. Starovoytova. - M .: Humanitarian AGI, 1996. - 448 p. - ISBN 5-89221-006-5 .
- Shterensis, Michael. Sigmund Freud. - ISRADON / IsraDon, Phoenix, 2012. - 160 p. - (Mark on history). - ISBN 978-5-222-19226-9 .
- Nadezhdin, Nikolay. Sigmund Freud. "Beyond Consciousness." - Major, 2011. - 192 p. - (Informal biographies). - ISBN 978-5-98551-135-2 .
- Ferris, Paul. Sigmund Freud / lane. from English Catherine Martinkevich. - Minsk: Poppuri, 2001. - 448 p. - ISBN 985-438-526-4 .
- Stone, Irving. Passion of the mind. Biographical novel about Sigmund Freud / Per. from English I. Usacheva. - M .: AST, 2011. - 864 p. - ISBN 978-5-17-072051-4 .
- Babin, Pierre. Sigmund Freud. Tragedian aged science / Per. with fr. Elena Sutotskaya. - M .: AST, 2003. - 144 p. - (Science. Discovery). - ISBN 2-07-053098-1 .
- Berry, Ruth. Sigmund Freud. Guide for beginners. The life and teachings of the founder of psychoanalysis. - Hippo, 2010. - 128 p. - ISBN 978-5-91606-003-4 .
- Wittels, Fritz. Freud. His personality, teaching and school / lane. with him. G. Taubman. - Combook, 2007. - 200 p. - ISBN 5-484-00882-4 .
- Marcus, Herorg. Sigmund Freud and the mysteries of the soul. Biography / trans. from English A. Zhuravel. - AST, 2008. - 336 p. - ISBN 978-5-17-049333-3 .
- Brown, James. Freudian psychology and post-Freudians / trans. from English .. - M .: Refl-beech, 1997. - 304 p. - (Current psychology). - ISBN 5-87983-027-6 .
- Lyukimson P. Freud: case history. - M.: Young Guard, 2014. - 461 p., [16] l. silt - ( Life of wonderful people ; Vol. 1651 (1451)). - 5000 copies - ISBN 978-5-235-03673-4 .
Culture Reflection
Literature and Cinema
Freud was repeatedly mentioned in works of art. As a character, the scientist appeared in the novels:
- “The Passion of the Mind ” ( 1971 ) by Irving Stone ,
- “ Ragtime ” ( 1975 ) by Edgar Doctorow ,
- " White Hotel " ( 1981 ) D. M. Thomas ,
- " When Nietzsche Wept " ( 1992 ) Irvine Yalom ,
- "The Stash of Dreams " ( 2003 ) D. Madson ,
- Freud 's Murder ( 2006 ) by
- “The Little Book ” ( 2008 ) by Selden Edwards ,
- The Vienna Triangle ( 2009 ) [197]
- The Dangerous Method ( 2011 ) by David Cronenberg .
Freud and his theory had a significant influence on the well-known Russian and American writer Vladimir Nabokov — despite the latter’s thoroughly documented and well-known dislike of Freud and psychoanalytic interpretations in general [198] , the influence of the founding father of psychoanalysis on the writer is traced in many novels; so, for example, the descriptions of Nabokov incest in the novel " Lolita " are clearly similar to the Freudian understanding of the [199] . In addition to Lolita, references to Freud's works are contained in many other works by Nabokov, despite the latter’s numerous attacks on psychoanalysis and the labeling of Freud by the “Vienna charlatan ” [200] . For example, Jeffrey Berman, author of The Talking Cure: Literary Representations of Psychoanalysis , writes: “Freud is the central figure in Nabokov’s life, always a shadow behind the writer.” [201] .
Freud more than once became a hero of dramatic works - for example, “Hysteria” ( 1993 ) , “Healing by conversation” ( 2002 ) by Christopher Hampton (filmed by David Cronenberg in 2011 under the name “ Dangerous Method ”), “Porcupine” ( 2008 ) by Michael Merino , Freud's Last Session ( 2009 ) by [197] .
The scientist also became a character in numerous movies and television series - their full list in the IMDb catalog is 71 paintings [202] .
Museums and monuments
In honor of Freud, several monuments have been erected — in London, in Vienna, near the scientist’s alma mater — his statue (there is also a stela in the city); A memorial plaque is located on the house where the explorer was born. In Austria, the portraits of Freud were used in the design of shillings - coins and banknotes. There are several museums dedicated to the memory of Freud. One of them, the Freud Museum of Dreams , is located in St. Petersburg ; It was opened in 1999 for the centenary of The Interpretation of Dreams and is dedicated to theories of the scientist, dreams, art and various antiquities. The museum is an installation on the theme of dreams and is located in the building of the East European Institute of Psychoanalysis [203] .
Более крупный музей Зигмунда Фрейда расположен в Вене по адресу Бергассе, 19 — в доме, где большую часть жизни работал учёный. Музей был создан в 1971 году при содействии Анны Фрейд и на данный момент занимает помещения бывшей квартиры и рабочих кабинетов исследователя; его коллекция содержит большое количество оригинальных предметов интерьера, принадлежавшие учёному предметы старины, оригиналы многих рукописей и обширную библиотеку. Помимо этого, в музее демонстрируются кинозаписи из архива семьи Фрейдов, снабжённые комментариями Анны Фрейд, функционируют лекционный и выставочные залы [204] .
Музей Зигмунда Фрейда также существует в Лондоне и располагается в здании, где основатель психоанализа проживал после вынужденной эмиграции из Вены. Музей обладает весьма богатой экспозицией, содержащей оригинальные предметы быта учёного, перевезённые из его дома на Бергассе. Помимо того, выставка включает множество образцов антиквариата из личной коллекции Фрейда, в том числе произведения древнегреческого , древнеримского и древнеегипетского искусства. В здании музея функционирует научно-исследовательский центр [205] .
Музей и зал памяти Зигмунда Фрейда расположен на родине учёного, в чешском городе Пршибор . Его открыли к 150-летию со дня рождения Фрейда — дом был выкуплен городскими властями и получил статус культурного наследия; открытие музея прошло при содействии президента Чешской Республики Вацлава Клауса и четырёх внуков учёного [206] .
Музей сновидений (Санкт-Петербург)
Лондонский Музей
Венский Музей
Стела Фрейда (Вена)
Мемориальная доска (Пршибор; Чехия)
Статуя Фрейда (Лондон)
Памятник Фрейду (Вена)
Топонимы
В 1973 году Международный астрономический союз присвоил имя Зигмунда Фрейда кратеру на видимой стороне Луны .
See also
- Человек-волк
- Пять основных клинических случаев Фрейда
- Фрейдизм
- Психоанализ
- Psychoanalyst
- Анализант
- Основное правило психоанализа
- Эдипов комплекс
- Комплекс Электры
- Психосексуальное развитие
- Интерпретация (психоанализ)
- Перенос (психология)
- Защитный механизм
- Международная психоаналитическая ассоциация
Notes
- ↑ Немецкая национальная библиотека , Берлинская государственная библиотека , Баварская государственная библиотека и др. Record #118535315 // Общий нормативный контроль (GND) — 2012—2016.
- B BNF ID : Open Data Platform - 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 KulturNav - 2015.
- ↑ Freud Zigmund // Great Soviet Encyclopedia : [in 30 t.] / Ed. A.M. Prokhorov - 3rd ed. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1969.
- ↑ National Museum of Fine Arts - 1792.
- ↑ Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary 1989–1990; Great Encyclopedic Dictionary 1997; ed. Prokhorov, A.M.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Freydzher, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 51—2.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Freud, 2002 , p. 7
- ↑ Yarovitsky, Vyacheslav. Sigmund Freud // 100 Great Psychologists. - Veche, 2004. - 432 p. - (100 great). - ISBN 5-94538-397-X .
- ↑ 1 2 Kjell, Ziegler, 2003 , p. 106
- ↑ Cordwell, Mike. Sigmund Freud // Psychology AZ: Dictionary-Reference / Transl. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - 2001. - 448 p. - ISBN 5-8183-0105-2 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Leibin, Valery Moiseevich. The discoveries and limitations of the theory of Freud . Questions of Psychology . voppsy.ru. The appeal date is May 13, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ Ellis, Albert. Guide to well-being using rational emotive behavior therapy. - NJ: A Citadel Press Book, 1998. - p. 316-25.
- ↑ Szasz, Thomas. Karl Kraus and the Soul-Doctors: a Pioneer Critic and His Criticism of Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis (English) . Webster University . webster.edu (2004). The appeal date is May 12, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ 1 2 Grayling, AC Scientist or storyteller? The Guardian . guardian.co.uk (June 22, 2002). The appeal date is May 12, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ 1 2 Jose, Brunner. Freud and the politics of psychoalanysis. - NJ: Transaction Publishing, 2001. - P. xxi. - 241 p. - ISBN 0-7658-0672-X .
- ↑ 1 2 Schick, Theodore. Readings in the Philosophy of Science. - CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000. - P. 9-13.
- Complete Works of Sigmund Freud in 26 volumes. Psychotherapeutic Center "Moscow Psychoanalysis" and the information portal "All about psychoanalysis . " psychoanalyse.ru. The appeal date is May 17, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 836.
- ↑ Karpenko, L., Petrovsky A. Sigmund Freud // History of Psychology in Persons. Personalities - PER SE, 2005. - 784 p. - (Psychological lexicon. Encyclopedic dictionary in 6 volumes). - ISBN 5-9292-0064-5 .
- ↑ 1 2 Casafon, 2006 , p. 112
- ↑ Now Freiberg is called Pribor and is located in the Czech Republic .
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. nineteen.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 15-6.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. nineteen.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. sixteen.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 25
- ↑ 1 2 Casafon, 2006 , p. 20.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 18.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 23.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 21.
- ↑ 1 2 Jones, 1996 , p. thirty.
- ↑ Freud, 2002 , p. ten.
- ↑ 1 2 Kjell, Ziegler, 2003 , p. 107.
- ↑ 1 2 Casafon, 2006 , p. thirty.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Jones, 1996 , p. 33.
- ↑ Dadoun, 1994 , p. 51.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 31—3.
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 29.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 37.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 34-5.
- ↑ Dadoun, 1994 , p. 53.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 41
- ↑ 1 2 Freud, 2002 , p. eleven.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Freydzher, Fadimen, 2008 , p. thirty.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 129.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 46.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 39
- ↑ Dadoun, 1994 , p. 59.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 49.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 50.
- ↑ Dadoun, 1994 , p. 54.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 64.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 51.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 64–8.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 56-65.
- ↑ Dadoun, 1994 , p. 62—3.
- ↑ Freud, Sigmund. Valery Zelensky "Freud and cocaine" // Articles about cocaine / per. from English Y. Donets. - SPb. : Alphabet, 2011. - 160 p. - ISBN 978-5-389-02819-7 .
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 54.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 69
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 55.
- ↑ Dadoun, 1994 , p. 65.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 122.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Kjell, Ziegler, 2003 , p. 108
- ↑ Freud, 2008 , p. ten.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 124.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 46-7.
- ↑ 1 2 Jones, 1996 , p. 134.
- ↑ Hergenhahr, BR - Cengage Learning, 2008. - P. 520—2. - 728 p. - ISBN 9780495506218 .
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 74-5.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Casafon, 2006 , p. 75
- ↑ Freud, 2002 , p. 11—2.
- ↑ 1 2 Jones, 1996 , p. 140.
- ↑ 1 2 Leibin, 2010 , p. 326-8.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 76.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Leibin, 2010 , p. 690-2.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Raycroft, 1995 , p. 168–9.
- ↑ Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica. The Social Science. Encyclopedia .. - Taylor & Francis, 2003. - p. 544. - 952 p. - ISBN 9780415285605 .
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 529–39.
- ↑ Phillips, L. Mental Illness and the Body: Beyond Diagnosis. - Taylor & Francis, 2006. - P. 69. - 2008 p. - ISBN 9780415383202 .
- ↑ Freud, 2010 , p. eleven.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 143.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 76-7.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 145.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 80
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 81.
- ↑ Freud, 2002 , p. 21.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 82
- ↑ Freud, 2005 , p. 12.
- ↑ 1 2 Kjell, Ziegler, 2003 , p. 109.
- ↑ Freud, 2005 , p. 21.
- ↑ Raycroft, 1995 , p. 181-2.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 786-7.
- ↑ 1 2 Laplanche, Pontalis, 1996 , The process is primary, the process is secondary.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 247.
- ↑ 1 2 Moore, Fain, 2000 , p. 198—9.
- ↑ Raycroft, 1995 , p. 143.
- ↑ Freud, 2006 , p. 22—3.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 86
- ↑ Freud, 2006 , p. 24
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 204.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 90.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 207.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 212-4.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 216.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 227.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 92
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 228.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 232.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Jones, 1996 , p. 261.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Casafon, 2006 , p. 94.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 260
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 126.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 270
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 97.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 368.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 266.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 95
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 269.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 240
- ↑ Freud, 2006 , p. 57.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 271.
- ↑ 1 2 Casafon, 2006 , p. 96-7.
- ↑ 1 2 Jones, 1996 , p. 272.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 99-100.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 100.
- ↑ 1 2 Casafon, 2006 , p. 101.
- ↑ 1 2 Leibin, 2010 , p. 397.
- ↑ Raycroft, 1995 , p. 90.
- ↑ Ellman, Steven. When theories touch: a historical and theoretical integration of psychoanalytic thought. - Karnac Books, 2010. - P. 86. - 708 p. - ISBN 9781855758681 .
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 105
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 106
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 107.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 108
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 109.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 114
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 422—3.
- ↑ Casafont, 2006 , p. 120—1.
- ↑ Jones, 1996 , p. 434.
- ↑ Pearson, Lynn F. Discovering Famous Graves. - Ospray Publishing, 2008. - P. 59. - 158 p. - ISBN 9780747806196 .
- ↑ Urn containing Sigmund Freuds ashes smashed in raid on Green Crematorium
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 36
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 37.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 927-9.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 777.
- ↑ 1 2 Losev, V. K., Lunkov A. I. Chapter 1. Stages and lines of psychosexual development of a child // Psychosexual development of a child. - M .: A.P.O., 1995. - 52 p.
- ↑ Kjell, Ziegler, 2003 , p. 118–9.
- ↑ 1 2 Leibin, 2010 , p. 892.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 893.
- ↑ Cordwell, Mike. Oedipus complex // Psychology AZ: Dictionary-Reference / Per. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - 2001. - 448 p. - ISBN 5-8183-0105-2 .
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 894.
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 46.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 250-2.
- ↑ Heigl-Evers, Annelize; Heigl, Franz; Ott, Jürgen; Rüger, Ulrich. Unconscious // Basic Guide to Psychotherapy. - Speech, East European Institute of Psychoanalysis, 2002. - 790 p. - ISBN 5-88787-018-4 .
- ↑ Laplanche, Pontalis, 1996 , Unconscious ..
- ↑ Free associations // Psychotherapeutic encyclopedia / Under total. ed. B.D. Karvasarsky. - SPb. : Peter, 2006. - 944 p. - 3000 copies - ISBN 5-318-00694-9 .
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 788.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 789.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 529.
- ↑ Golovin, Sergey. Transfer // Dictionary of a practical psychologist. - Harvest, AST, 2001. - ISBN 985-13-0374-7 .
- ↑ Cutter, Muller, 2011 , p. 27.
- ↑ Leibin, Vladimir Moiseevich. Chapter 2. The origins of psychoanalysis // Psychoanalysis. - Peter, 2008. - 592 p. - ISBN 978-5-388-00232-7 . >
- ↑ Schultz, Diana; Schultz, Sidney Helen. The place of psychoanalysis in the history of psychology // History of modern psychology. - Eurasia, 1998. - 528 p. - ISBN 5-8071-0007-7 ; >
- ↑ Freyger, Fadimen, 2008 , p. 32—3.
- ↑ Labin, 2010 , p. 476-7.
- ↑ Freud, 2005 , p. 23.
- ↑ 1 2 Kjell, Ziegler, 2003 , p. 13.
- ↑ 1 2 Freydzher, Fadimen, 2008 , p. sixteen.
- ↑ Freud, 2002 , p. 29.
- ↑ Nemirovsky, Carlos. Winnicot and Kohut: New perspectives in psychoanalysis, psychotherapy and psychiatry: Intersubjectivity and complex mental disorders. - M .: Kogito-Center, 2010. - p. 36-45. - 217 s. - ISBN 978-5-89353-321-1 .
- ↑ Lacan, Jacques. "I" in the theory of Freud and the technique of psychoanalysis (Seminar, book II (1954/55)) / Under total. ed. J.-A. Miller. - M .: Gnosis; Logos, 2009. - p. 13. - ISBN 5-8163-0037-7 .
- ↑ Ferenci, Shandor. The influence of Freud on medicine . Psychological assistance . psychol-ok.ru (1933). The date of circulation is May 21, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
- ↑ Mareev S. N., Mareeva E. V. Chapter 11. Z. Freud and the philosophy of the 20th century // History of Philosophy (general course): Study Guide. - M .: Academic Project, 2004. - 880 p. - (Gaudeamus). - ISBN 5-8291-0402-4 .
- ↑ Obukhova, L. F. Chapter III. Sigmund Freud 's Theory // Child Psychology. - M .: Trivola, 1995.
- Koryakina, E.P. Development of cultural science in the XIX-XX centuries: the most important concepts of culture: Textbook. - M .: MGI them. E. R. Dashkova, 2003. — P. 13—4. - 53 s.
- Ult Schultz, Duane P .; Schultz, Sydney Ellen. Theories of Personality. - Cengage Learning, 2005. - p. 46. - 532 p. - ISBN 9780534624026 .
- ↑ Jerome Neu (English) . University of California Santa Cruz . psychology.ucsc.edu. The appeal date is June 4, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
- ↑ Neu, Jerome. The Cambridge Companion to Freud. - Cambridge University Press, 1991. - P. 1. - 356 p. - ISBN 9780521377799 .
- ↑ Grünbaum A. One Hundred Years of Psychoanalysis: Results and Prospects. Epilogue from the editor // Independent Psychiatric Journal. - 1997. - № 3. - p. 17-18.
- ↑ Savenko Yu.S. Krapelin and Freud's legacy in modern psychiatry: acquisitions and costs // Independent Psychiatric Journal. - 2006. - № 2. - p. 7-10.
- ↑ 1 2 Savenko Yu.S. Lessons of Jaspers // Independent Psychiatric Journal. - 2003. - № 3. - p. 6-11.
- ↑ Rutkevich A.M. The scientific status of psychoanalysis / / Problems of Philosophy. - 2000. - № 10. - p. 11-15.
- ↑ Krepelin E. Introduction to a psychiatric clinic / E. Krepelin; Postword S.A. Ovsyannikov. - M .: Bean. Laboratory of Knowledge, 2004. - 493 with: Il. with. - ISBN 94774-094-X.
- ↑ Naham J. Psychology and Psychiatry in the USA / Translated from English by L.V. Dubrovina and N.I. Voyskunska. - Moscow: Progress, 1984. - p. 36-37.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Brenner, Frank. Fearless Thought: Psychoanalysis in the Soviet Union . World socialist website . wsws.org/ru (12/03/1999). The appeal date is May 13, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ 1 2 Radzikhovsky, L. A. Freud's Theory: A Change of Installation . Questions of Psychology . voppsy (08/15/1988). The appeal date is May 13, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ Grünbaum A. One Hundred Years of Psychoanalysis: Results and Prospects // Independent Psychiatric Journal. - 1997. - № 3. - p. 7-17.
- ↑ Carroll, Robert T. Freudian psychoanalysis (English) . The Sceptic's Dictionary . skepdic.com. The appeal date is May 12, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ 1 2 Stevenson, Leslie. Critical discussion // Ten theories about human nature. - WORD / SLOVO, 2004. - 232 p. - ISBN 5-85050-832-5 .
- ↑ Sigmund Freud (English) . The Florida State University. College of Criminology and Criminal Justice . fsu.edu The appeal date is August 4, 2019.
- ↑ Delahoyde, Michael. Psychoanalytic Criticism (English) . Washington State University . wsu.edu The appeal date is May 12, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ Cohen, Patricia. Freud is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology Department (English) . New York Times . nytimes.com (11/25/2007). The appeal date is May 12, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ Kilhstrom, John F. Is Freud Still Alive? No, Not Really . University of California, Berkley . berkley.edu (2000). The appeal date is May 12, 2012. Archived May 30, 2012.
- ↑ Hans Jürgen Eysenck. Sigmund Freud: Niedergang und Ende der Psychoanalyse . - List, 1985-01-01. - 246 s. - ISBN 9783471774182 .
- ↑ Hans J. Eysenck, Glenn D. Wilson. The Experimental Study of Freudian Theories (Psychology Revivals) . - Routledge, 2013-11-26. - 426 s. - ISBN 9781135020262 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 Aysenck GJ. Forty years later: a new look at the problems of effectiveness in psychotherapy // Psychological Journal. - 1994. - V. 14, № 4. - p. 3-19.
- ↑ 1 2 Tobin, Robert Deam. Fixing Freud: The Oedipus Complex in the Early Twenty-First Century US American Novels (Eng.) // Psychoanalysis and History. - Edinburgh University Press, 2011. - Vol. 13, no. 2 - P. 245–246. - ISSN 1460-8235 .
- ↑ Henry, David; Larmour, James. Discourse and Ideology in Nabokov's Prose. - Routledge, 2002. - p. 62. - 176 p. - ISBN 9780415286589 .
- ↑ O'Rourke, James L. Sex, Lies, And Autobiography: The Ethics of Confession. - 2006. - P. 169. - 215 p. - ISBN 9780813925127 .
- ↑ Straumann, Barbara. Figuration of Exile in Hitchcock and Nabokov. - Edinburgh University Press, 2004. - P. 204. - 240 p. - ISBN 9780748636464 .
- ↑ Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel. Russian Literature and Psychoanalysis. - John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1989. - P. 373. - 485 p. - ISBN 9789027215369 .
- ↑ Sigmund Freud (Character) (English) . Internet Movie Database . imdb.com The appeal date is May 29, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
- ↑ Freud's Dream Museum . Freud's Museum of Dreams . freud.ru. The appeal date is May 22, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
- ↑ Sigmund Freud Museum . Vienna travel guide online . wien.info. The appeal date is May 22, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
- ↑ Sigmund Freud Museum . London (London) - museum, sights . london-info.ru. The appeal date is May 22, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
- ↑ Sigmund Freud . VIA REGINA . psydon.ru. The appeal date is May 22, 2012. Archived June 24, 2012.
Literature
- Freud, Sigmund. Psychoanalytic Studies / Comp. DI Donskoy, V.F. Kruglyansky. - Minsk: Poppuri, 2010. - 608 p. - ISBN 978-985-15-1064-7 .
- Freud, Sigmund. Basic psychological theory in psychoanalysis / trans. M.Wolf, A.A. Spector. - M .: AST, 2006. - 400 p. - ISBN 5-17-036472-5 .
- Freud, Sigmund. The interpretation of dreams / under total. ed. E. S. Kalmykova, M. B. Agracheva, A. M. Bokovikova. - M .: Company STD, 2005. - 680 p. - ISBN 5-89808-040-6 .
- Freud, Sigmund . A man named Moses. Liters, 2017.
About Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
- Webster, Richard. Why was Freud wrong? - M .: AST, 2013. - 732 p. - ISBN 978-5-17-077735-8
- Guy P. Freud. - M .: Azbuka-Atticus, Kolibri, 2016. - 976 p. - 978-5-389-08596-1
- Dadun, Roger. Freud. - M .: H.G.S., 1994. - 512 p. - ISBN 5-7588-0040-6 .
- Jones E. The Life and Works of Sigmund Freud / transl. from English V. Starovoytova. - M .: Humanitarian AGI, 1996. - 448 p. - ISBN 5-89221-006-5 .
- Casafont, Josep Ramon. Sigmund Freud / lane. with isp. A. Berkova. - M .: AST, 2006. - 253 p. - (Biography and creativity). - ISBN 5-17-037281-7 .
- Cutter, Peter; Muller, Thomas. Psychoanalysis. Introduction to the psychology of unconscious processes. - M .: Kogito-Center, 2011. - 384 p. - (University psychological education). - ISBN 978-3-608-94437-2 .
- Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bernard. Dictionary of Psychoanalysis / Per. with fr. N. Avtonomova. - M .: Higher School , 1996. - 623 p. - ISBN 5-06-002974-3 .
- Leibin V.M. Dictionary-reference on psychoanalysis. - M .: AST, 2010. - 956 p. - (Psychology). - ISBN 978-5-17-063584-9 .
- Rycroft, Charles. Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. - SPb. : East European Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1995. - 288 p. - ISBN 5-88787-001-X .
- Ferris P. Sigmund Freud / Per. from English Catherine Martinkevich. - Mn. : Poppuri, 2001. - 448 p. - ISBN 985-438-526-4 .
- Freyger, Robert; Fadeyman, James. The big book of psychology. Personality. Theories, exercises, experiments. - SPb. : Prime EUROZNAK, 2008. - 704 p. - ISBN 978-5-93878-241-9 .
- Erich Fromm . The greatness and limitations of Freud's theory = Greatness and Limitation of Freud's Thought ( 1979 ). - Moscow : AST , 2000 . - 448 s. - (Classics of foreign psychology). - 5000 copies - ISBN 5-237-04524-3 .
- Kjell, Larry L .; Ziegler, Daniel J. Theories of Personality. - 3rd Intern. ed. - SPb. : Peter, 2003. - 608 p. - (Masters of Psychology). - ISBN 5-88782-412-3 .
- Yaroshevsky, MG, G. Sigmund Freud, an Eminent Investigator of the Mental Life of Man, Freud, Sigmund. Psychology of the unconscious. - SPb. : Peter, 2002. - 400 p. - (Masters of Psychology). - ISBN 5-94723-092-5 .
- Sigmund Freud // 100 people who changed the course of history: the magazine. - M .: De Agostini, 2008. - № 13 . - ISSN 1996-8469 .
- Psychoanalytic terms and concepts: Dictionary / Ed. B. Moore, B. Fine. - M .: Class, 2000. - 304 p. - (Library of psychology and psychotherapy). - ISBN 5-86375-023-5 .
- V.I. Maisky. Freudianism and religion . Critical essay. Publisher * Godless *. Moscow, 1930
- Fritz Wittels. Freud. His personality, teaching and school. GIZ, Leningrad, 1925.
- Hans Jürgen Aysenk . Sigmund Freud. The decline and the end of psychoanalysis (List-Ferlag Publishing House, Munich, 1985. Russian translation and publication on the Internet 2016)
Links
- Freud, Sigmund in the library of Maxim Moshkov
- Sigmund Freud . - Biographical article in the New Philosophical Encyclopedia . The appeal date is August 27, 2012. Archived October 16, 2012.
- Sigmund Freud . - Biographical article V. I. Ovcharenko . The appeal date is August 27, 2012. Archived October 16, 2012.
- Sigmund Freud . - Biographical article in the Encyclopedia Krugosvet . The appeal date is August 27, 2012. Archived October 16, 2012.
- Sigmund Freud // Great Soviet Encyclopedia : [in 30 t.] / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov . - 3rd ed. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.
- Bibliography of the main works of Freud . The appeal date is August 27, 2012. Archived October 16, 2012.
- Freud's complete, verified bibliography in Russian
- Virtual exhibition “Sigmund Freud. By the 155th anniversary of the birth "
- Photos by Sigmund Freud