A woman in ancient Egypt held a high position in comparison with most other developed civilizations of that period - including Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire . At the same time, gender responsibilities in society were imposed on women and men.
Content
Legal Basics
Egyptian women had equal legal rights of inheritance with men, testaments, freely moved outside the wartime around the country, could draw up contracts and attend as a witness, sue, write down children in their own names. The Greek Ptolemaic epochs living in Egypt, depending on the male patron of Kirios ( ancient Greek κύριος ), envied the freedom and independence of the Egyptians [1] [2] .
Rarely, but women reached high positions in administration, power structures, became scribes. Such exclusivity is associated with the main responsibilities entrusted to society by a woman - motherhood, management of the economy.
A woman in ancient Egypt played an important role in the inheritance system, as land ownership passed through the female line. This was due to the fact that the fact of motherhood is more obvious than paternity. The husband could use the land while the spouse was alive, and after her death everything was inherited by the daughter [2] . Therefore, marriage to any heir to the throne gave Pharaoh the right to rule the country. The age of the wife in this case often did not matter - it happened that an elderly old woman and a newborn baby became a wife. Often, to remove competitors, Pharaoh took as his wife all the heirs to the throne. For example, Ramses II married the queen Isitnofret , and later, in order not to lose the throne, married his daughter Bent-Anat [3] .
Family
Marriage
Housewife hieroglyphs | |||
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Any free citizen had the right to marry. In Egypt, a woman after marriage retained her name, adding “the wife of such and such”, and received the status of “ Mistress of the house ”, remaining personally free. Many girls dreamed of getting married sooner, because then they were freed from parental care and could afford greater freedom [3] .
It was not necessary to go young to the house of her husband, often the spouse moved to the bride's parent's house. This happened either for convenience and benefit, or because of the absence of sons and brothers in the family of the bride.
The marriage was not sanctified by the clergy, the Egyptians did not arrange weddings, limited to the exchange of gifts. Often, especially in later periods, marriage contracts were concluded. The husband uttered the sacramental phrase “ I take you to wife ”, and she answered “ You take me to wife ” [4] . Relatives of the bride presented a gift to the bridegroom and received from him “a ransom of innocence” for the bride, which speaks of the importance of respecting her virginity before marriage (although this was not considered fundamentally important). When remarried, a woman received a "gift of the bride." Often, these gifts were only a formality, since families were united and led a common household, but during a divorce, these offerings could be returned by court order. [one]
In ancient Egypt, there were no strict prohibitions for bachelors and single women or widows - they could not start a family if they did not want. But it was nevertheless considered desirable not to remain alone, to continue the race, to ensure their old age. Starting a family was often simply cost-effective, and also helped in moving up the career ladder.
Treason
The Papyrus Westkar speaks of a woman who was burned alive for treason against her husband. In the collection of Gaston Maspero, " Contes populaires " (Popular Tales), there is an ancient legend about the farmer Beat, who was seduced by the wife of his brother Anopa. An insidious woman deceiving her husband to get rid of Bit. Only after the murder of his brother Anopu reveals the deceit of the unfaithful wife and throws her to be devoured by the dogs.
Divorce
For one reason or another, both a man and a woman could claim a divorce. The initiator of the divorce was forced to give half of his property to his spouse. If a man filed for divorce, he had to maintain his former spouse until her next marriage or until her decisive refusal to pay. The children stayed with their mother [5] . The decision was made without the intervention of any administrative or religious structures [4] . One of the reasons for the divorce could be the absence of children in the family.
Children
Pregnant women prayed to the frog goddess Hekat , wore amulets depicting a frog sitting on a lotus flower. A woman in labor was smeared with incense, a woman’s figure was placed on the belly, placed on a carpet, in the corners of which four bricks were put, personifying the goddesses Nuth , Tefnut , Isis and Neftis . After the birth, the womb of the woman was under the protection of the goddess Tanenet . To determine the sex of the future child, there was a practice that spread later in Greece, Byzantium and Europe. Sacks of barley and wheat were placed in the urine of a pregnant woman - sprouted barley promised a boy, and wheat a girl [6] .
Medical papyruses provide prescriptions for contraception , which was not forbidden. The ingredients today are difficult to determine, but some are clear: a drink from celery and beer, fermented acacia resin [6] , crocodile droppings.
Professions
The bulk of the Egyptian women were commoners. They did housework while husband and sons cultivated fields; a woman could replace her husband or son in a shop, supervise field work. Often women were portrayed for the preparation of beer, bread, weaving cloth, weaving baskets. Typically, the "Mistress of the House" commanded the servants, trained children. Noble women who hired servants and nannies made perfumes, served gods and goddesses at temples, learning songs, music and dances [7] . Both men and women could be servants of the goddess Isis , and the priests of the god Amon were exclusively men. The highest title for a woman (originally from the royal family, later from any noble) was the title of “ Wife of the God Amon ”, which allowed her to perform religious rites with the main priest at the statue of God. In the New Kingdom, the most powerful “Spouse of Amon” was considered to be Queen Hatshepsut [5] .
Women from any class could work as mourners . At the main festival of Osiris, the two most prominent women were selected for the performance of "Weeping Isis and Nephthys ." In the texts of Deir el-Medina it is said about “wise women” (mainly priestesses of Hathor), who interpreted dreams and predicted the future [8] .
To become a priest, you had to go a long way to learning a scribe. If the woman received the education of the scribe, she could claim the position of priestess, teacher or doctor. Women doctors were revered in ancient Egypt, and the medical school in Alexandria taught volunteers from other countries. Greek Agnodika in the IV. BC e. I went to study medicine in Egypt, because she, as a woman, was denied study in Athens [5] . The renowned Egyptian doctors were the “ chief physician ” Merit Ptah (XXVII century BC) and the midwife Peeshet ( IV dynasty ). Known Nenofer since the New Kingdom , which led its business. Vizirem Chati served Nebet during the VI Dynasty .
Women in power
For the 3000-year history of Egyptian civilization, women had to become the head of state, either as regent or sole ruler because of the absence of other heirs or because of their own ambitions. Science knows several such pharaoh women:
Dynastic period
- Neyhotep (I Dynasty) wrote down her name in an ornamental vignette of serekh , which was permitted only to the pharaohs. The question of sole board remains open.
- Mernayt (I Dynasty) also wrote her name in an ornamental vignette of earrings . Regency with her young son Dene .
Ancient Kingdom
- Hentkaus I (IV Dynasty) on its pyramidal tomb is presented with the attributes of power and the title "Pharaoh of Egypt".
- Hentkaus II (V Dynasty) had a similar title.
- Nitokris ( VI Dynasty ) is considered the last ruler of the Old Kingdom . The question of her accession and belonging to the female sex has not been finally resolved.
Middle Kingdom
- Nefrusebek ( XII Dynasty ) - the last ruler of the Middle Kingdom , after which began the rebellious Second transition period . Her memory was not destroyed, which is why the tsarina is considered the first legitimate female pharaoh.
New Kingdom
- Hatshepsut ( XVIII Dynasty ) did not transfer power to the stepson Thutmos III , who entered the rights and age, demanded that the " Pharaoh " should turn to himself.
- Nefernefruaton (XVIII Dynasty) is the throne name of a certain woman ruler who ruled for about two years after the death of Pharaoh Akhenaten .
- Ankhesenam (XVIII Dynasty) remained the only representative of the royal family after the death of Tutankhamen’s husband and, perhaps, the rules for a short time, according to the letters to Dahamunts .
- Tausert ( XIX Dynasty ) - the last ruler of the XIX Dynasty came to power as regent for her son Saptah and returned to the throne after his death. The next pharaoh Setnacht destroyed the memory of Tausert, usurped her tomb ( KV14 ) in the Valley of the Kings .
Hellenistic period
- Berenice III ( Ptolemy ) came into power in 81 BC. e. and after 6 months of successful rule, she was killed by her husband, Ptolemy XI . Angry people dealt with Pharaoh.
- Berenice IV (Ptolemy) usurped the power of his father in 58 BC. e. Her first husband was ordered to strangle, with the second rule of 6 months, until Ptolemy XII , who returned from exile, killed her.
- Cleopatra VII (Ptolemy) fought for power with her brother Ptolemy XIII , relying on the support of Rome (especially Julius Caesar ). After the death of one brother in battle, Cleopatra married the second Ptolemy XIV and the rules were almost the same. After the murder of Caesar, she found an ally in the face of Mark Antony , but was defeated by Octavian and committed suicide. It is considered the last Egyptian ruler, although the Ptolemies were not Egyptians by origin.
The ideal of feminine beauty
See also
- Priestess in Ancient Egypt
- Education in ancient Egypt
- Menat
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 Bob Brier, Hoyt Hobbs. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. - Westport: Greenwood Press, 2008. - (Daily life through history). - ISBN 978-0-313-35306-2 .
- ↑ 1 2 Barbara Watterson. The Egyptians. - Wiley-Blackwell, 1997.
- ↑ 1 2 Margaret Murray . The greatness of ancient Egypt. - Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2009. - P. 107-112. - 319 s. - ISBN 978-5-9524-44829 .
- ↑ 1 2 Christiane Desroches Noblecourt. A woman in the time of the pharaohs = La femme au temps des pharaons. - Stock, 1988. - 344 p. - (Le Livre de Poche). - ISBN 2253046418 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 Joshua J. Mark. Women in Ancient Egypt (eng.) // Ancient History Encyclopedia: Article. - 2016. - 4 November.
- ↑ 1 2 Christian Jacques. Ramses. Temple of millions of years = Les Egyptiennes / lane. with fr. E. Kovalenko. - M .: Phoenix, 2001. - 448 p. - (Mark on history). - ISBN 5-222-00085-0 .
- ↑ Hunt, Norman Bancroft. Living in Ancient Egypt. - New York: Thalamus Publishing, 2009. - ISBN 978-0-8160-6338-3 .
- ↑ David, R. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. - Penguin Books, 2003.