Turkish language (self: Türk dili (short: Türkçe [ˈt̪yɾktʃe] 
listen ), rus. historical Tour language ) is the official language of Turkey , a member of the Turkic language family . Türkye Türkçesi (“Turkish Turkic”) is also used as an alternative name in Turkic studies .
| Turkish language | |
|---|---|
| Self name | Türkçe, Türk dili |
| Country | Turkey , Cyprus , Germany , Bulgaria , etc. (see section below ) |
| Official status |
 Romania : |
| Regulatory Organization | Turkish Linguistic Society |
| Total number of speakers | ~ 77 million [1] |
| Rating | 21 |
| Status | In safety |
| Classification | |
| Category | Languages of Eurasia |
Turkic family
| |
| Writing | Latin ( Turkish alphabet ) |
| Language codes | |
| GOST 7.75–97 | tour 693 |
| ISO 639-1 | tr |
| ISO 639-2 | tur |
| ISO 639-3 | tur |
| WALS | |
| Ethnologue | |
| ABS ASCL | |
| Ietf | |
| Glottolog | |
The modern Turkish language belongs to the southwestern (or Western Oguz) subgroup of Turkic languages . The languages most closely related to Turkish in the lexical, phonetic and syntactic terms are primarily the Balkan-Turkic language of the Gagauz , which is common in the territory of modern Moldova , Romania and Bulgaria (the Gagauz and Balkan-Gagauz proper), and the southern dialect of the Crimean Tatar language . A little further away from the literary Turkish Azeri [3] [ page? ] (preserving many archaisms and Persian borrowings and forming a dialectal continuum with East Anatolian dialects of Turkish language) and, due to a number of phonetic and some grammatical differences, Turkmen . The Turkish language and, in particular, its northwestern dialects, and the Gagauz - both converge with the Pecheneg language : cf. Transitions in the Pechenezh language g / k > y at the end of words ( beg > bey ), k / g > in v intervocal position (between vowels, eg, kökerçi > küverçi ), t > d at the beginning of words ( tağ > dağ ), with full analogy in the Turkish and Gagauz languages: bey , güvercin , dağ / daa .
Content
Spread
Turkish in Turkey is native to 60 million people, or almost 80% of the population. 177 thousand people in Cyprus (1995 [4] ) and about 128 thousand in Greece (data 1976) consider their native Turkish to be their language. It is also native to the Meskhetian Turks .
About 740 thousand people speak Turkish in Bulgaria (2001) [4] , 37 thousand - in Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan and Azerbaijan (data from 1979). About 64 thousand carriers lived by 1984 in Belgium , 170 thousand - in Austria (2000). There are 2 million 800 thousand Turks living in Germany (2009), half of whom were not born there and consider Turkish as their native language [5] . In addition, in 1982, 14 thousand people spoke Turkish in Romania , and 250 thousand in the former Yugoslavia . In 1990, about 3,000 Turkish speakers lived in Iraq , and about 8,000 in Iran . 2500. In the United States in 1970, there were 24 thousand native speakers of Turkish, and in Canada in 1974 more than 8 thousand called Turkish a native language. In France in 1984, the Turkish language was considered native ca. 135 thousand people, and in the Netherlands - 150 thousand people. In 1988, approx. 5000 native speakers of Turkish.
At present (2009) in the world there are, according to various estimates, from 61–63 million [6] [7] to 73 million [8] Turkish speakers, which represents about 40% of the total number of all Turk-speaking and makes Turkish is the first in the number of speakers among all Turkic languages [8] .
Dialects
There are many dialects of the Turkish language, the basis of the Turkish literary language today forms the Istanbul dialect. In addition, there are Danube, Eskishehir (in Eskisehir vilayet), Razgrad, Dinler, Rumelian, Karaman (in Karaman), Adrianopol ( Edirne ), Gaziantep, Urfa and several others in Turkish.
An example of dialectal differences
| Turkish Literature ( Istanbul ) | Rumelia | Black Sea region | Southeast Anatolia | Aegean region |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gidiyorum ("I'm coming . ") | gideym | kitéyrım-cideyrum | gidirem | gidiyom |
| Kayacağım (“I'll slip out . ”) | gayacaim | kayadzağum da | kayacam | gayıvecem |
| Gördüğüm güzel kız . ("Beautiful girl I see.") | gürdügüm güzel kız | cörduum cüzel gız | gördügüm gözel gız | gördüğüm güzel gız |
| Ne yapacakmış ? (“What will he do?”) | n'apacag imiş? | n'âbadzağ imiş? | ne yapcaxmış? | napca: mış? |
| Yağmura mı bakıyorsun ? ("Do you watch the rain?") | yagmura mi bakaysın? | yâmora mi pakaysun? | yagmıra mı bagıyorsuñ? | yağmıra mı bakıyon? |
| Koşacağım . (I will run.) | koşaca'm | koşadzağum | goşacağam | goşcem |
History
Modern Turkish goes back to the Old Anatolian-Turkic - the language of the Oguz-Seljuk Eastern Turkic tribes that once inhabited Central Asia and settled Asia Minor by the XI-XIII centuries.
Literary Turkish began to be created at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries on the basis of the Old Anatolian-Turkic language, which, in turn, goes back to the Central Asian-Turkic language brought to Asia Minor by the Seljuks and heavily diluted with elements of the popular spoken language of the mixed Turkic population of Asia Minor.
Kırşehir is the first reliable city and region of Anatolia, in which from the beginning of the 14th century literature in the Anatolian Turkic language begins to appear. In this regard, this steppe region of Anatolia is sharply contrasted with the Persianized Konya and other major cities of the Seljuk state, in which the role of the only written official language was played by Dari (Persian) until the end of the 13th century [9] .
Over the past few centuries, the Turkish language has been significantly influenced by Persian and Arabic , and therefore the number of words borrowed from these languages has sometimes reached 80% of Turkish vocabulary. Until the 20th century, there was a literary language of the Ottoman Empire, which was quite different from the colloquial Turkish speech - the Ottoman language . Pan-Turkists (in particular, Ismail Gasprinsky ) in the late XIX - early XX centuries. published magazines and newspapers in a language that was gradually cleared of borrowing, although different from modern Turkish. The new language was promoted by the Young Turks .
Language Reform
In 1923, the Republic of Turkey was formed, and in the 1930s, the process of replacing foreign language borrowing with original Turkish words began. This process continues to this day, although in Turkish you can still find words of Persian-Arabic origin along with their synonyms, created from Turkic roots. In the 20th century, new concepts from European languages appeared - primarily from French .
In order to returkize and modernize the Turkish language, the actively functioning and now state-owned “ Turkish Linguistic Society ” (“ Türk Dil Kurumu ” [10] ) was created in 1932.
One of the most important steps towards the democratization of Turkey was the reform of the alphabet (the fourth year of the Turkish Republic) and the reform of the language (development activities of the Turkish language as being able to independently serve science, technology and art; the ninth year of the Turkish Republic).
The linguist Kamile Imer ( Kâmile İmer ) to the question of what a language revolution is is:
- Dili daha
- “Language reform is a state-supported nationwide language development activity aimed at ensuring its development as a cultural language dominated by local elements.” [eleven]
Any person conveys his thoughts with phrases and sentences, creating connections between individual words. From this point of view, the reform of language is also a reform of thinking. The factors that ensured the revolution of language, at the same time, put forward the goals of this phenomenon.
The factor of nationalization involves clearing the language of foreign elements. Another factor involves the emergence of the Turkish language as the language of culture. The achievement of these goals is due to the fact that language is a product of society. If reform is carried out without state support, then reform will remain an unrelated activity of individuals and will not be a product of society. A vivid example is the preparatory stages of the reform. A reform decree issued to clean up the language could not cover the whole society. The reform began to bear fruit at the national level only when the Society for the Study of the Turkish Language was established on the state initiative. This happened in 1932, after the establishment of the Turkish Republic [12] .
Alphabets
The ancient Eastern Turks were already tribes with a developed culture: they used Turkic runic writing for writing .
K X century. The Oghuz accepted Islam and adopted the Arabic letter with the addition of separate characters borrowed from the Persians. However, for the rich phoneme of the Turkish language this alphabet was very poorly adapted.
At the beginning of 1926, Kemal Ataturk took part in the congress of turkologists in Baku , which, in particular, sounded the requirement of romanization of Turkic languages through the creation of the so-called new Turkic alphabet .
Since 1928, a variant of the Latin font has been used for the Turkish language, in the development of which Atatürk took part. The basis of the new spelling of words (as well as for the general reform of the language ) was the Istanbul dialect.
In the modern Turkish alphabet there are 29 letters, and each phoneme has a letter:
| A a | B b | C c | Ç ç | D d | E e | F f |
| G g | Ğ ğ | H h | I ı | İ i | J j | K k |
| L l | M m | N n | O o | Ö ö | P p | R r |
| S s | Ş ş | T t | U u | Ü ü | V v | Y y |
| Z z |
Phonetics and phonology
| Table of Turkish Vowels ( MFA ) |
|---|
There are 8 vowel phonemes in Turkish: a, ı, u, o (back vowels), e, i, ü, ö (front row vowels).
21 (with soft variants - 24) consonant phoneme: p, b, f, v, t, d, s, ş, z, j, ç, c, m, n, l, (l '), r, y, k, (k '), g, (g'), h, ğ . Only false (combinatorial) diphthongs , occurring mainly at the junction of morphemes and words, are noted.
| Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Postvalveolar | Palatine | Palatine | Guttural | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ||||||||||||||
| Blasting | p | b | t | d | (c) | (ɟ) | k | ɡ | ||||||||
| Fricatives | f | v | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ɣ | h | ||||||||
| Affricates | tʃ | dʒ | ||||||||||||||
| Trembling | ɾ | |||||||||||||||
| Approximants | (ɫ) | l | j | |||||||||||||
The emphasis is musical and power. In the words of the Turkic root and in old borrowings, as a rule, it falls on the last syllable; in polysyllabic words bipolar. Often there is a situational shift of a strong stress. In some cases, it has a sense-distinguishing function.
There are no etymological long vowels. Secondary longitude appears as a result of the loss of a consonant / / with back row vowels.
Pronunciation
| Letter | Phoneme | Description |
|---|---|---|
| a | [ a ] | as rus but |
| b | [ b ] | as rus b |
| c | [ ʤ ] | affricata , as eng. j in jet , close to rus. jeep jeep |
| ç | [ ʧ ] | affricate , deaf version of the phoneme [ dʒ ], harder than rus. h , close to the combination of sounds "tsh" in Russian. better but shorter without sound |
| d | [ d ] | as rus d |
| e | [ ɛ ] | as rus uh in the word this |
| f | [ f ] | as rus f |
| g | [ g ], [ ɟ ] | in the vicinity of the vowels of the back row ("solid") - like Russian. g ; in the vicinity of the front vowels e, i, ö, ü ("soft") is strongly softened to "aspirate" |
| ğ | ([ ɰ ]), [ ː ], [ j ] | yumuşak g (“soft g”) : weakly aspirated, voiced, or, more often, “mute” consonant; at the end of the syllable is implemented lengthening the previous non-leading vowel, or, after the vowels of the front row, means a sound close to the Russian. th |
| h | [ h ] | like english h in house |
| ı | [ ɯ ] | close to rus s , but deeper (rear) sound |
| i | [ i ] | as rus and |
| j | [ ʒ ] | softer rus well |
| k | [ k ], [ s ] | in the vicinity of the vowels of the back row (“hard”) - as solid rus. to ; in the vicinity of the vowels of the front row e, i, ö, ü ("soft") is strongly softened to "aspirated" |
| l | [ l ] | as rus l |
| m | [ m ] | as rus m |
| n | [ n ] | as rus n |
| o | [ o ] | as rus o deep (back) |
| ö | [ œ ] | like him ö in möchte , fr. eu in feu , Russ "ё" without the initial sound "d" |
| p | [ p ] | as rus P |
| r | [ ɾ ] | shorter, not as rolling as rus. p , in standard pronunciation at the end of words, is always stunned (as in Russian minister ), it is often articulated without hitting the tip of the tongue and acquiring a light “w” - or “f” -shaped crevice overtone |
| s | [ s ] | as rus with |
| ş | [ ʃ ] | softer rus sh |
| t | [ t ] | as rus t |
| u | [ u ] | as rus at |
| ü | [ y ] | like him ü in müssen , fr. u in une |
| v | [ β ] / [ w ], [ v ] | close to rus in either, in the intervocal position, approaches lip-labial w , as in English. wood |
| y | [ j ] | as rus th |
| z | [ z ] | as rus s |
The remaining letters are pronounced approximately as in French or German (for example, t , p with a slight breathing at the beginning of a word). The Latin alphabet q , w , x in Turkish graphics are used only in foreign proper names; The letter j is found only in borrowed words.
Morphology
Turkish refers to agglutinative languages . This is expressed in the fact that the word clearly identifies the root, and all grammatical forms are expressed (almost always unambiguous) by affixes, as if glued to the root to the right. In this case, one after another can follow several affixes in a row, each with its own value. The order of the types of endings is clearly fixed.
In general, Turkish morphology is characterized by a high degree of stability and an almost complete absence of exceptions.
In Turkish, there are no nominal classes, there is no gender category.
Vowel Harmony
When adding affixes and endings, so-called t. synharmonicity : the law of assimilation of vowels to each other on the basis of palate / inconspicuousness and poutiness / non-palliance, that is, the quality of the vowel of the last syllable of the base (root) determines the quality of vowels of all subsequent syllables. Thus, if the last vowel of a root is a front vowel, then all subsequent affixes and endings must have front vowels and vice versa, the back vowel of the last syllable of the root leads to back vowels in all further syllables. At the same time, there is a great harmony of vowels, in which an affix can have 4 variants of vowels in its composition ( ı , i , u or ü ), and a small harmony of vowels, where only variants with a or e are possible inside the affix .
Nouns
In Turkish there is no grammatical category of the genus of nouns. There is only a limited number of Arabic nouns accepting the ending -a or -e as an indicator of the feminine gender.
In Turkish, there are affixes affiliation, which indicate that the subject (s) belongs to someone / something: The basis of the name + affix plural and affix affix. Affixes affiliation in the hierarchical sequence occupy the second place, that is, they join after the affixes of the plural number before the case affixes; and in the case of the absence of the plural indicator, the affixes of affiliation are attached directly to the base of the name.
Verb
The basis of the verb coincides with the form of the imperative mood in units. h. In modern dictionaries, the verb is in the form of the stem + affix of the verbal name -mak / -mek (“do”) (that is, the infinitive).
In Turkish 5 moods: desirable, indicative, imperative, conditional, must.
In the indicative mood, there are 5 simple time forms:
- Present (current) time ( Şimdiki zaman ),
- Present-Future (indefinite) time ( Geniş zaman ),
- Future (categorical) time ( Gelecek zaman ),
- Past unobvious time (subjective) ( Belirsiz geçmiş zaman ),
- Past categorical (perfect) time ( Belirli geçmiş zaman ).
In addition, in this mood there are 7 more complex forms of time:
- Past imperfect time (certain imperfect) ( Şimdiki zamanın hikâyesi ),
- Pre-past first time ( Belirsiz geçmiş zamanın hikâyesi )
- Pre-past second time ( Belirli geçmiş zamanın hikâyesi )
- Past indefinite time (undefined imperfect) ( Geniş zamanın hikâyesi ),
- Future-past tense ( Gelecek zamanın hikâyesi ),
- Present for a long time ( Sürekli şimdiki zaman ),
- The past a long time ( Sürekli şimdiki zamanın hikâyesi ).
In the remaining moods there is one past and future tense. There are also 6 forms of conditional modality.
There are 5 deposits: the main (direct), returnable, mutual, passive, imperative.
In addition, Turkish has the indefinite article bir (length: “one”).
In the area of syntax, the law of precedence of the definition to be determined (the usual word order: Subject-Direct Addition-Predictable (SOV)).
Numbers
In Turkish, there are the following groups of numerals - quantitative, ordinal, fractional, separating and plural numerals.
Security System
Linguists argue about the number of cases, some linguists are inclined to believe that Turkish has 6 cases and another part of linguists recognize 8 cases. The following is a list of cases of the Turkish language:
| Turkish cases | Analogs in Russian |
| Main | Nominative |
| Definitive | Accusative |
| Directing | Dative |
| Local | - |
| Original | - |
| Loss of means | Instrumental |
| Possessive | Genitive |
| Loss of alignment | - |
Vocabulary
With the adoption of the Seljuk tribes (that is, the ancestors of modern Turks ) of Islam in the 9th-10th centuries and up to 1928, the Arabic alphabet was used to write the Turkish language (the so-called Ottoman script , os . الفبا elifbâ ). Эти два фактора несомненно способствовали обильным лексическим и грамматическим заимствованиям из арабского . После захвата сельджуками Персии официальным и литературным языком некоторое время принято было считать персидский , который, в свою очередь, также пополнялся арабизмами. Долгое время язык образованных турок представлял собой смесь тюркской, арабской и персидской лексики. После возникновения Османской империи именно этот язык получил название османского и статус официального.
Греческий язык населения завоёванной турками Византии также оставил свой след в турецкой лексике.
По данным некоторых исследователей (напр. GL Lewis, Turkish Grammar ) лексически османский язык был вторым в мире после современного английского по объёму словарного фонда.
На протяжении всего этого времени (с X по XX века) разговорным языком простого народа оставался намного более однородный в своей тюркской основе язык — «вульгарный» турецкий (тур. kaba Türkçe ).
После образования Турецкой республики в 1923 году были предприняты значительные попытки реформирования языка, вместе с переходом на латинскую графику многие арабские и персидские заимствования были упразднены в пользу их тюркских по происхождению соответствий, сохранившихся в народном живом языке ( kaba Türkçe ). Для некоторых понятий были созданы неологизмы из старотюркских основ.
Несмотря на это, современный турецкий сохранил значительное число заимствований как из арабского и персидского , так и из других, как правило, европейских языков (в основном, в их французском произношении). Арабо-персидские заимствования в современном языке зачастую выполняют роль стилистических дублетов обиходных тюркских слов. Например, тюркское göz («глаз»), арабское ayn и персидское çeşm («око»), тюркское ak («белый» ; « чистый») и арабское beyaz («белый»).
Изданный в 2005 году Словарь современного турецкого языка содержит 104481 статью ( Güncel Türkçe Sözlük , Турецкое лингвистическое общество), из которых около 14 % посвящено словам иностранного происхождения [13] .
Примеры заимствованных слов из разных языков:
- из арабского : insan («человек»), merhaba («здравствуйте!»), devlet («государство»), halk («народ»), kitap («книга»), millet («нация»), asker («войска»), fikir («идея»), hediye («подарок»), resim («рисунок»), sabır («терпение»), beyaz («белый») , şeytan («чёрт») , keyf («кайф») , alkol («алкоголь») , kafir («неверующий») , saat («час») , din («религия») , cumhuriyet («республика»);
- из фарси : hafta («неделя»), teşekkür («спасибо»), pazar («рынок»), rüzgâr («ветер»), pencere («окно»), şehir («город»), düşman («враг»), ateş («огонь, пламя»), bahçe («сад»), ayna («зеркало»), dost («друг»), can («душа»), tahta («доска»), pamuk («хлопок»), hoş («приятный»), köy («деревня»), pijama («пижама»);
- из греческого : liman («порт»), kutu («коробка»), körfez («залив»), fırın («печь»), kilise («церковь») ;
- из французского : lüks («роскошь»), kuzen (« двоюродный брат» ) , pantolon («штаны, брюки»), kuaför («парикмахер»), hoparlör («громкоговоритель»), kamyon («грузовик»);
- из английского : tişört («футболка»), tim («команда») и др;
- из армянского : haç (խաչ khach — « крест»), а также около 800 [14] других слов;
- из других языков: şalter (из немецкого Schalter — « выключатель, рубильник»), pulluk ( слав . «плуг»), semaver ( рус . «самовар»), şapka ( рус . « шапка»).
С другой стороны, большое количество турцизмов проникло в языки балканских народов [15] .
Всего вместе с именами собственными, географическими названиями, научными терминами и т. д. в турецком насчитывается свыше 616,5 тыс. слов (по данным «Большого словаря турецкого языка»).
See also
- Турецко-русская практическая транскрипция
- Османский язык
- Южнобережный диалект крымскотатарского языка
- Кипрский диалект турецкого языка
- Сирийско-туркменские диалекты
- Turks
Notes
- ↑ Турецкий язык и тюркские языки
- ↑ «Алтайская семья языков и ее изучение» Стр. 17 // Н. А. Баскаков ., Изд-во «Наука», 1981
- ↑ Сравнительно-историческая грамматика тюркских языков. Региональные реконструкции. Ed. Ред. Э. Р. Тенишев. М.: Наука, 2002
- ↑ 1 2 Ethnologue Linguistic Encyclopedia (in English)
- ↑ Report 'On the Integration of Immigrants', Website of the Berlin Institute (PDF)
- ↑ Encarta Encyclopedia Data (in English)
- Язы Languages of the World Directory, Routledge
- ↑ 1 2 Website Terra Anatolia (Inaccessible link) . Circulation date October 2, 2009. Archived December 1, 2009.
- ↑ Islamisation: Comparative Perspectives from History - Google Books
- ↑ Turkish Linguistic Society website
- ↑ (Dilde Değişme ve Gelişme Açısından Türk Dil Devrimi, TDK Yayınları, Ankara, 1976, s. 31 ve ötesi)
- ↑ (Agy, s. 32)
- ↑ Electronic version of the Dictionary on the website of the Turkish Linguistic Society
- ↑ R. Dankoff, Armenian Loanwords in Turkish (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1995)
- ↑ http://sites.utoronto.ca/slavic/kramer/Kramer%20PDF/BajGanjo.PDF
Literature
- Dmitriev N. K. Build Turkish. - M. , 1939.
- Kononov A.N. Grammar of the Turkish language. - M.L.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1941.
- Kononov A.N. Essay on the history of the study of the Turkish language / USSR Academy of Sciences . - L .: Science . Leningrad Department, 1976. - 120 p. - 1850 copies (region)
- Robert Dankoff. Armenian Loanwords in Turkish . - Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1995.