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Lehitic languages

Lehi ( Polish języki lechickie , Kashubian lechicczé jãzëczi ) is a subgroup of West Slavic languages [2] historically distributed in the territory corresponding to modern Poland and eastern Germany ( Brandenburg , Mecklenburg , Pomerania ).

Lehitic languages
Taxonsubgroup
AreaPoland , Germany , France , Lithuania , Czech Republic , Russia , Belarus , Ukraine , Slovakia , Kazakhstan , Latvia , USA , Brazil , Canada
Number of carriersabout 40 million [1]
Classification
CategoryLanguages ​​of Eurasia

Indo-European family

Slavic branch
West Slavic group
Composition
Polish , Silesian , Kashubian , Slovenian , Polab
Language group codes
ISO 639-2-
ISO 639-5-

At present, the Lehita subgroup includes one of the largest Polish speakers in Eastern Europe by the number of speakers [3] , highly fragmented dialect , as well as the Kashubian language widely spread in northwestern Poland [4] [5] , the use of which is mainly limited household sphere. Recently, the Silesian language , traditionally attributed to Polish dialects, is often highlighted. Two Lehitic languages ​​became extinct: in the 18th century the Slavic language in Germany [6] and in the 20th century the Slovo language , the distribution area of ​​which was adjacent to the area of ​​the Kashubian language (many researchers consider the Slovinian dialect of Kashubian) [7] .

The total number of speakers of Lehitic languages ​​is about 40 million people [1] .

Etymology of the name and history of the study of the subgroup

“Lehitsky” is not the self-name of this subgroup of languages, since there was no record of the existence of either an ethnic community that united all the speakers of these languages, throughout their entire history, or a single language for them, the name is artificially derived from the Latinized ethnonym Lęch . In the languages ​​of neighbors, the ethnonym of the Poles sounds like lénkai in Lithuanian , lengyelek in Hungarian , Poles among the Eastern Slavs [8] , perhaps the name of the Lenjian tribe ( Lenzits or Lenkhs ) was transferred by neighboring peoples to all Poles. There is also a version of the origin of the name from the eponym (name) of the legendary founder of Poland, Lech [9] .

The first separation of the Lechitic linguistic community from the West Slavic was proposed in the middle of the 19th century by the Czech scholar P. J. Shafarik , who divided the West Slavic languages into three subgroups: Lyashsky (languages ​​of Poles , Silesians and Pomeranians ), Czechoslovakian (languages ​​of Czechs , Moravian and Slovaks ) and Polaba (languages ​​of the Lutichs , encouraged , Luzhansky , Milchans and other tribes) [10] . A.F. Hilferding in his 1862 work “Remains of Slavs on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea” also singled out the Lyash subgroup of languages, including Polish and the dialects of the Baltic Baltic Slavs (the only surviving of which is Kashubian) [11] . The first to raise the question of the relationship between the Polish and Kashubian languages ​​with the Slav language was the German linguist A. Schleicher , he combined these languages ​​into the northern ( Lehitsky ) subgroup by the presence of such common features as the transition of the Pre -Slavic * g and * dj to ʒ and preservation of nasal vowels (noting also the common accent and masuria that are similar between Polabsky and Kashubsky, bringing Polabsky closer to some Polish dialects). In this subgroup, A. Schleicher distinguished between Western Lechitic (Polaba) and East Lechitic (Polish with Kashubian) languages. In the West Slavic area, by the presence or absence of nasal, he contrasted the northern subgroup of the southern ( Czech ), which included the Czech , Slovak and Puddle languages [12] .

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. works appeared in which a special view of the internal division of Lehitic languages ​​was noted, the Polaba and Kashubian were allocated as a separate Pomeranian group ( I. Baudouin de Courtenay ) or considered as adverbs of the same language ( S. Ramult ( Stefan Ramułt )); as well as some scientists expressed doubt about the existence of lehitic linguistic unity ( F. Lorenz ( Friedrich Lorentz )) [13] . Further study of lehitsky languages, and in particular the history of their formation, is reflected in the studies of K. Nich , Ya. Rozvadovsky and T. Ler-Splavinsky , convincingly proving the kinship of the languages ​​of the lehitsky subgroup [14] .

A number of scholars in a special way examined the problem of relations in the West Slavic group of Lehitic and Lugic languages. V. Tashitsky , Z. Shtiber , E. Nalepa expressed an opinion about a particularly close relationship between the Lugitsa and Lehi languages [15] . V. Tashitsky suggested that in antiquity there could have been a Lechitic-Lugic linguistic community, opposed to the Czech-Slovak one, and he called the Lower Luzhitsky “strongly lehizating language”. Z. Shtiber believed that Lower Luzhitsky is identical to Lehitic languages [16] . V. Mańczak , who draws together the Polaba and Lower Luzhitsky on the basis of lexical similarity, holds the opinion of the greater closeness of the Labab language with the Lower Luzhitsky language than with the Polish one [17] .

Classification of Lehitic Languages

 
Map of the placement of lehitic languages, including dialects of the Polish language [18]

Lehitic languages ​​are divided into Western and Eastern :

  • Western Lechitic languages ​​and dialects:
    • Polab (Old Polish) language †
    • Slavic dialects between Oder and Elba [19] , which disappeared in the VIII - XIV centuries. [2] †
    • The dialects of the Baltic Pomerania (sometimes combined by the term Pomeranian language ), of which only Kashubian dialects have survived to this day [20]
      • Kashubian language
        • Slovo-Pomeranian dialects or Slovo language [19] †
      • Slavic dialects of Western Pomerania †
  • East Lechitic languages ​​and dialects:
    • Polish language
      • Silesian language ( ethnolect ), also considered as one of the main dialect groups of the Polish language along with Greater Poland , Lesser Poland and Mazovian [3]

The Silesian language, which is considered, according to many Slavists, to be a dialect of the Polish language, does not have significant linguistic features that distinguish it from other Polish dialects. Nevertheless, it is distinguished by the presence of written language [21] and a special ethnic identity of the speakers of this dialect. There is a movement to give the dialect the status of an independent language, attempts are made to codify it [22] .

The Kashubian language, which has retained a certain genetic independence [2] and has its own literary tradition, due to extralinguistic reasons, together with the Slovian language, is also considered as one of the main dialect groups of the Polish language [3] [23] [19] . Slovin (the language of the Protestant Slavs of Pomerania until the middle of the 20th century) is included in the Kashubian language (the language of the Catholic population of Pomor) as its dialect (or as the dialects of its northern Kashubian dialect ), in the 19th - early 20th centuries. the name Pomorsky was used for the Kashub and Slovinians (in the works of S. Ramult (1893, Słownik języka pomorskiego czyli kaszubskiego ), F. Lorenz (1925, Geschichte der Pomoranischen (Kaschubischen) Sprache ) and other scholars).

Kashubian, Slovin and other dialects of Pomerania genetically go back to the dialect of the Pomeranian tribal union. According to the presence in the Pomeranian dialect of ancient linguistic features similar to those of the dialects of the Slavic Slavs , T. Ler-Splavinsky classified the Pomeranian tribes as West Lechites, dividing them into two groups of tribes: West Pomeranian and East Pomeranian [24] [25] . In the Kashubian and Slovenian languages ​​developed on the basis of the ancient Pomeranian dialect, West Lehitic language features (mobile stress, preservation of softness before -ar- , cases of preservation of unmetatized combinations * tort , etc.) [6] [26] [~ 1] , bringing them closer to the Polabsky They preserved, but at the same time in the modern Kashubian dominate vostochnolehitskie features (the largest number of which is represented in its yuzhnokashubskom dialect ), which was the result of a long process of contacts interdialectal in northern Poland, closer to the dialects polskog language [23] . Proceeding from this, the dialects of Pomerania can be considered as East Lechitic or transitional from West Lechitic to East Lechitic [27] . C. Deina divided the dialects of the Polish language into Central Lehit (Pomeranian) and East Lehit (Continental). Considering the Kashubian dialect of Polish, he attributed it to the Central Lechitic, noting the transitional nature of the Kashubian from Polish to Polab, while emphasizing the widespread spread of East Lechitic linguistic phenomena in it [28] .

Most of the Slavic dialects of Pomerania (or tribal languages) [2] , both West Lechitic and East Lechitic, have not survived to the present, they are known only according to toponymy and Slavic borrowings in dialects of the Low German language .

Range

Lehitic languages ​​are distributed in the northern part of the West Slavic area; together with Czech, Slovak and Ludice, the Lechitic languages ​​historically represented the West Slavic dialect continuum , which was disrupted by the spread of the German language in Silesia and the shepherd colonization that took place in the XIV - XVI centuries. along the territory of the Carpathians and accompanied by migrations of the Wallachians , possibly the eastern Slavs [29] , as well as the Polish population from the Krakow region in Podhale (which formed sub-ethnic groups of gurals ) [30] . Currently, Lehitic languages ​​are connected by transitional dialects (known as Lyash dialects ) with other West Slavic languages ​​only in the area of ​​the Polish-Czech-Slovak borderland in the Carpathians [31] . The dialects on the border of Poland and the Czech Republic to the west of this region are mixed migratory dialects formed after the Second World War as a result of the change of the German population in Silesia to Polish and Czech [32] .

In the northeastern part of its range, the Lechitic languages ​​border on the areas of Russian [~ 2] [33] and Lithuanian languages , in the east they border on Belarusian and Ukrainian (including Lemko dialects in the southeast), in the west - on German and Puddle languages . Continuation of the lehits area in the south are the dialects of residents of the border regions of Poland with Slovakia ( Lesser Poland goral dialects Spisa and Orava ) and the Czech Republic (dialects of Tesinska Silesia ) [34] .

Numerous island Polish dialects, known as peripheral dialects of the Polish language , are widespread in Belarus and Lithuania , to a lesser extent they are preserved in Ukraine and Latvia , as well as in Romania , Moldova and Hungary [34] .

In addition to Poland (the main area of ​​distribution of modern Lechitic languages) and its neighboring states (where native speakers of the Polish language live for a long time), the Polish language (and its dialects), as well as the Kashubian language, are distributed among immigrants and their descendants in many countries of the world: Germany , the USA (including speakers of the Silesian dialect in Texas [35] ), Canada (including speakers of the Kashubian language [36] ), Brazil , Argentina , Australia and in many other countries. In large Polish diasporas , peculiar variants of the Polish language are formed in a bilingual environment: the Polish-Brazilian version is influenced by the Portuguese language , the language of the American Polonium is influenced by the English language and others [34] .

Strength and Current Situation

The vast majority of speakers of modern Lechitic languages ​​are native speakers of the Polish language . According to the 2002 census, their number in Poland amounted to 37,405 thousand people. (of which 36 965 thousand are Poles ) [37] . Polish is used in the Polish diaspora among people of Polish descent who find themselves outside Poland as a result of emigration, resettlement, changes in state borders: in Lithuania - 235 thousand people. (2001), Belarus - 18 thousand people. (1999), Russia - 94 thousand people. (2002) [38] , Kazakhstan - 47 thousand people. (1999), Ukraine - 19 thousand people. (2001), Latvia - 12 thousand people. (2000), Czech Republic - 52 thousand people. (2001), Germany - 300 thousand people. (2002), USA - 667 thousand people. (2000), Canada - 164 thousand people. (2001) and others. According to various sources, the total number of Polish speakers living outside Poland exceeds 1.7 million. [one]
According to the 2002 census, 52,665 people speak Kashubian at home in Poland. (of which 49 855 called themselves Poles , 2690 - Kashubians , 34 - Germans ), 56 643 people speak the Silesian language . (of these, 29,345 called themselves Silesians , 19,991 - Poles, 7213 - Germans) [37] .

The Polish language is one of the largest in the number of speakers and the area of ​​distribution of the Slavic language, it is one of the official languages ​​of the European Union and the official language of the Republic of Poland, used in all spheres of life of the Polish state. Unlike Polish, the use of the Kashubian and Silesian languages ​​is limited, as a rule, by oral communication in everyday life. Most of the speakers of Kashubian and Silesian in Poland are bilingual, the second language they speak is Polish. Compared with Silesian (which does not have a generally accepted norm), the Kashubian language has a relatively stable norm, in Kashubian since the 19th century literary works have been created (with the influence of one or another dialect), newspapers are currently being published, broadcasts are broadcast [39] , the Kashubian language taught in schools [40] .

The history of the formation of lehit languages

 
Map of the resettlement of the main West Lechitic [24] [25] [41] and East Lehitic tribal unions (groups) in the pre-Yast era (in the 9th century ) [28] [42] [43]

The beginning of the formation of the Lechitic linguistic community dates back to the era of the Pre-Slavic language , when within the territory of the distribution of its western dialect (the dialect of the ancestors of the speakers of all modern West Slavic languages), the northern (Pralechite) and southern (Laš-Slovak) sub-dialects began to separate. The result of the development of the northern sub-dialect after the collapse of the Pre-Slavic language community in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium e. became the formation of modern lehitic languages [44] [45] .

In the early period of the development of the pre- Palekhite dialect, its contacts with other dialect associations of the Pre-Slavs , including the ancestor of modern eastern South Slavic languages , are noted, as evidenced by the ancient Bulgarian-Lechite isoglosses , distinguished by S. B. Bernshtein (delabilization of the nasal back row, preservation of the bow in ʒ , ʒ 'et al.) [46] , and later, around the middle of I th. and several previously formed at pralehitskogo dialect some similarities with praseverno-Eastern Slavic dialect (later developed in drevnenovgorodsk th dialect ) [44] .

The ancestors of the speakers of modern Lechitic languages ​​(Poles and Kashubians), as well as the ancestors of the speakers of the Slavic dialects of the Lechite subgroup in the area between the Oder and Elba (Laba) , which disappeared in the VIII - XIV centuries. (of which only a small island of the Labab population in Luneburg was preserved until the 18th century ), settling west from the Carpathian region and the Vistula basin , by the 6th – 7th centuries. occupied large areas of central and eastern Europe from the Western Bug and Vistula in the east to the Elbe (including its left bank) in the west and from the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetenland and the Carpathian Mountains in the south. In the western part of the Lehits area, the Slavs occupied the lands left by Germanic tribes during the period of the migration of peoples in the 5th - 6th centuries. [47] , or settled inland with the Germans [2] , while part of the German population was assimilated by the Slavs, and some Slavic tribal ethnonyms , possibly of Germanic origin, passed from the Germans to the Slavs ( ruyan - rughii , slanzan - silinga , varna - varins) [45] [48] .

Western Lechitic Languages ​​and Dialects

The dialects of four large tribal unions - cheerleaders (bodriches) (including cheerleaders , Dreans , Wagers , Varns , etc.), Lutichs (Veletos) (including huts , across the Penyan , Gavolyan , etc.), Ruyan (who lived on the island of Rügen - Slavic Ruyan) and Pomeranians (including Volyn, Kashubov , etc.) [~ 3] [25] , who settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea from the Vistula to Elba, became the basis for the formation of a Western Lechite language community that existed for a relatively short time [24] [ 47] .

 
Map of the resettlement of Germans and their assimilation of the Western Slavs and Prussians in the eastern territories in the VIII - XIV centuries. [49]

As a result of the medieval expansion of the German language, most of the Western Lechitic dialects were supplanted by German for several centuries and disappeared. Information has been preserved about two dialects of the Polaba (Old Polaba) language (extinct by the 17th - 18th centuries ), originating from the dialect of the Drevan tribe from the union of the encouraged tribes. They were located on the western periphery of the West Lechitic area in the Principality of Luneburg in the Lyuchov-Dannenberg region , one of these dialects is known from the records of the Polaba peasant Jan Parum Schulze, the other from the dictionary of pastor Christian Hennig [6] [26] . There is an assumption that the Labab language was spread over a wide territory up to the lower Oder and included in its composition, in addition to the Drevan, the Rival and Velet dialect groups, but such division is not supported by reliable linguistic materials. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Lyutich dialects (Veletian dialects) could evolve independently of the Oodorite dialects and evolved into an independent Slavic language (the formation of which was not completed) [47] . In addition to Polaba, another extinct West Lechitic language is also known on the northeastern periphery of the West Lechitic area in the area of ​​the Lebsko and Gardno-Slovo lakes (or the archaic dialect of the Kashubian language, or, together with Kashubsky, the dialect of the Pomeranian language), described in detail by F. Lorenz and M. Rudnitsky , used until the middle of the 20th century [46] [50] . The remaining Slavonic dialects between Oder and Elba, as well as in western Pomerania, left traces only in toponastics and substrate vocabulary .

Until now, only the Kashubian language has survived (or, according to other classifications, genetically isolated, but for extralinguistic reasons, a dialect of the Polish language) [51] . The Kashubian language with Slovo-Pomeranian dialects (Slovian language) was formed on the basis of the dialect of the Eastern Pomeranians with the influence of the German literary language and Low German dialects on their vocabulary. Currently, the Kashubian language, together with the Slovo-Pomeranian dialects (although retaining some Western Lechitic traits), is considered to be East Lechitic or transitional from West Lechitic to East Lechitic [27] , which is a consequence of the historical convergence of Pomor dialects with the Polish language [23] .

East Lechitic Languages ​​and Dialects

East Lechitic dialects of four large tribal unions - glades , Wieslans, slansan (slang) and Mazovshan [~ 4] - in the process of their development and rapprochement formed the modern Polish language with a wide variety of dialects and dialects [~ 5] [52] as in the territory of ancient Eastern Lechite tribes (the territory of the ethnic formation of the Poles), and beyond, formed as a result of the spread of the Polish language on the lands of the Balts ( Prussians and Yatvingians ) and Eastern Slavs .

The dialects of the Eastern Lechite tribes were not linguistically homogeneous, among the main Polish tribal unions, relative linguistic unity was characteristic of the dialects of the Meadows, Wislans and Slans, the Mazovshan dialect was most isolated from them [52] . The role of the Polish dialects, formed on the basis of the dialects of the tribes, in the formation of the common Polish language was different; its basis was primarily the Great Polish (Polyansky) dialect (with subsequent strengthening of the influence on the literary language of the Lesser Polish dialect) [~ 6] [53] . The formation of a single Polish language was facilitated by the consolidation of native speakers of tribal East Lechitic dialects in one state since the X century . Protected to some extent from the West from the German invasion by the resistance that the West Lechite tribes offered him, the East Lechites had time to organize into a strong state association capable of withstanding the powerful German expansion to the east. The center of this state was the Polyana tribe, their rulers, the Piasts , consolidated power over their tribal lands in their hands, captured neighboring Kuyavs and captured the territories of the tribes most related to the meadow: Mazovia , Silesia , Lesser Poland , East Pomerania [54] . Subsequently, part of the Polish territories came under German rule in Masuria , western Greater Poland , Lower Silesia , the Polish dialects of these lands underwent Germanization [55] - after 1945 these territories were settled by Poles, where new mixed dialects of the Polish language were formed.

Among the modern Polish dialects , the Silesian dialect group is sometimes singled out as an independent language, which is facilitated more by the processes of formation of ethnic self-identity among Silesians (in Poland 173 thousand people called themselves Silesians in 2002 [56] , and in the Czech Republic - 10.8 thousand people in 2001 [57] ), the movement for Silesian autonomy [58] , than linguistic reasons proper. Силезский диалект выделяется среди других польских не наличием своеобразных, присущих только ему, языковых явлений, а главным образом сочетанием (наличием или отсутствием в нём) великопольских или малопольских черт, а также своеобразной лексикой, сформированной во времена господства немецкого языка в Силезии под властью Австро-Венгрии , в дальнейшем — Пруссии и единой Германии .

Основные языковые особенности

Лехитские языки разделяют языковые черты, общие для всех языков западнославянской группы (сохранение архаичных сочетаний согласных tl , dl ( польск. plótł, mydło ); результаты второй ( польск. mucha — musze ) и третьей палатализации ( польск. wszystek из *vьхъ ) для задненёбного х ; сохранение сочетаний kv' , gv' ( польск. kwiat, gwiazda ); отсутствие l эпентетического ( польск. ziemia ); переход *tj , *dj в c , ʒ ( z ) ( польск. świeca, miedza ); переход *ktj , *gtj в c ( польск. noc, piec ); наличие в родительном и дательном пад. ед. числа сложных прилагательных флексий -ego , -emu в отличие от -ogo , -omu ; стяжение гласных при выпадении интервокального j и ассимиляции гласных во флексиях и в корнях ( польск. prosty, prosta, proste ) и др.) [2] . Кроме этого, языки лехитской подгруппы характеризуют общие для них и обособленные от других западнославянских языков явления.

Within the West Slavic area, Lehitic languages ​​differ from closely related Czech , Slovak, and Ludic languages ​​with the following linguistic features inherent in them:

  • Transition of the Pre-Slavic e . ě , ę , r̥ ' , l̥' in front of solid anterolanguages ​​in o , a , ǫ , r̥ , l̥ : Polish lato from * lĕto , etc. [59]
  • The delabialized character of the nasal posterior row is ą о (as with the ancestor of the modern Bulgarian language - ą Ь ), among the remaining Slavs the labialized ų or ǫ (subsequently lost) [46] .
  • Preservation of Pre -Slavic nasal vowels : Polish. pięć , dub. pąt , but Czech. pět [60] . They are absent in the Kielce-Sandomer dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect in which the denazalization process took place [61] .
  • Features of changes in groups * tort , * tolt , common with the East Slavic languages : Polish. krowa, złoto, król (with reduction of the vowel before the sonant) and Rus. cow, gold, king , but czech. kráva, zlato, král in the presence of cases of lack of mutation in tort in the Western Lechitic range: Kashubsk. warna (crow) and polub. korvo (cow) [62] .
  • Loss of syllable syllables (vocalization of sonants) r̥ , ŕ̥ and l̥ , l̥ ' , development of combinations with vowels in their place: Polish. twardy, sierp, żółty , forces. mołwić , kashubsk. wolk but czech. tvrdý, srp, mluvit , Slovak žltý, vlk . Vocalization of sonants is also common in Puddle languages [59] .
  • The presence of a bond in ʒ , ʒ ' ( Polish noga - nodze ) in the results of the second and third palatalizations in place of * g , not preserved in the languages ​​of the Czech-Slovak subgroup ( Czech noha - noze ), partially and in Kashubian: Kashubian. saza with polish. sadza (soot), in modern Kashubian, the absence of a bow is presented in rare cases. Also, the bow in ʒ , ʒ 'is known to some Western Bulgarian dialects. The sound ʒ in Lehitic languages ​​is also represented in the place of the Pre-Slavic * dj [46] .
  • Lack of transition of g to h (laryngeal, fricative): Polish. noga , but Czech. noha .
  • Initial stress (on the first syllable) in Czech, Slovak and Puddle languages ​​is opposed by paroxytonic stress (on the penultimate syllable) in Polish and various in Kashubian and Polubsky [2] .

Lehitic languages ​​are characterized by lexical borrowings (especially in the Slab, Slovin, Kashubian languages ​​and in the dialects of the Greater Poland and Silesian dialects of the Polish language) from German , as well as the influence of Latin as the language of the church, science and literature on Kashubian and Polish.

Differences between West Lechitic linguistic phenomena from East Lechitic:

  • Uniform replacement of the sonants l ' and l : kashubsk. wolk, dolgi, pålni with polish. wilk, długi, pełny .
  • Preservation of softness before -ar- : Kashubsk. cv'ardi, m'artvi in Polish. twardy, martwy .
  • Cases of preservation of unmetated combinations * tort [59] .

A part of Lehitsky linguistic features is also characteristic of Luzitsky languages, which occupy a transitional position from Lehitsky to the Czech-Slovak subgroup [24] (vocalization of the sonants r̥ , ŕ̥ and l̥ , l̥ ' , the presence of sound g in Lower Luzhitsky , etc.), some of the linguistic phenomena contrast Lehitsky and Czech-Slovak Ludic (preservation in the latter of the dual form ).

See also

  • Lehits
  • Luzhitsky languages
  • Czech-Slovak languages

Notes

Comments
  1. ↑ A part of the Western Lechitic linguistic features (such as cases of preservation of unmetatized combinations * tort , etc.) are currently lexicalized relics in modern Kashubian dialects.
  2. ↑ After 1945, in the territory of East Prussia, the Russian language was replaced by the Low German dialects , which, in turn, completely replaced the Prussian (Old Prussian) language by the beginning of the 18th century .
  3. ↑ The composition of the West Lechitic tribes, from whose language there is very little information, was revealed according to historical data and the study of toponymy .
  4. ↑ In addition to tribal unions of Polyans , Wislans , Slansan and Mazovshans, there were other East Lechite tribal associations: Kuyavs , Lenzyans , Sieradzyans and others.
  5. ↑ Linguistic differences between ancient tribal Polish dialects reflect the modern dialect division of the Polish language: the main dialect groups ( Greater Poland , Lesser Poland , Silesian and Mazovian ) originate from the dialects of Polyans, Wieslyan, Slosen (slang) and Mazovanshan .
  6. ↑ The development of the Polish literary language was affected to a lesser extent than the Greater Poland and Lesser Poland dialects, as well as the Mazovian dialect and peripheral dialects of the Polish language of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.
Sources
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  4. ↑ SIL International . - Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: csb. Archived February 21, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  5. ↑ Ethnologue: Languages ​​of the World . - Kashubian. A language of Poland. Archived February 21, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  6. ↑ 1 2 3 Suprun A. E. Polabsky // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief V. N. Yartseva . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2 .
  7. ↑ Encyclopedia of the languages ​​of Europe / edited by Glanville Price. - Blackwell Publishers, 2000 .-- S. 49-50. - ISBN 0-631-22039-9 . (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
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  11. ↑ Lehr-Spławiński, 1929 , p. five.
  12. ↑ Lehr-Spławiński, 1929 , p. 5-6.
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  14. ↑ Lehr-Spławiński, 1929 , p. 6-9.
  15. ↑ Taszycki W. Stanowisko języka łużyckiego // Symbolae grammaticae in honorem J. Rozwadowski. - 1928. - T. II . - S. 128-135 .
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  17. ↑ Polański K. Gramatyka języka połabskiego / pod redakcją J. Okuniewskiego. - 2010. - S. 18. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  18. ↑ Gwary polskie. Przewodnik multimedialny pod redakcją Haliny Karaś (Polish) (unavailable link) . - Mapa dialektów. Archived February 21, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  19. ↑ 1 2 3 Toporov V.N. Indo-European languages // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief V.N.Yartseva . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2 .
  20. ↑ Dulichenko A.D. West Slavic languages. Kashubian language // Languages ​​of the world. Slavic languages. - M .: " Academia ", 2005. - S. 383. - ISBN 5-874444-216 -2.
  21. ↑ Handke, 2001 , p. 211.
  22. ↑ Tikhomirova, 2005 , p. 37.
  23. ↑ 1 2 3 Tikhomirova, 2005 , p. 1-2.
  24. ↑ 1 2 3 4 Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 19-20.
  25. ↑ 1 2 3 Lehr-Spławiński T. Język polski. Pochodzenie, powstanie, rozwój. - Warszawa, 1978.
  26. ↑ 1 2 Suprun A. E. Polabsky // Introduction to Slavic Philology. - Minsk, 1989 .-- S. 93-99. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  27. ↑ 1 2 Handke, 2001 , p. 206.
  28. ↑ 1 2 Dejna K. Dialekty polskie. - Wrocław, 1973.
  29. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 83.
  30. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 81.
  31. ↑ Stieber Z. Sposoby powstawania słowiańskich gwar przejściowych // Prace Kom. Jęz. PAU, No. 27. - Kraków, 1938.
  32. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 66.
  33. ↑ Toporov V. N. Prussian language // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief V. N. Yartseva . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2 .
  34. ↑ 1 2 3 Tikhomirova, 2005 , p. 2.
  35. ↑ Texas State Historical Association . - Panna Maria, TX. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  36. ↑ Wiёdno Kaszёbё (English) . - Canada. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  37. ↑ 1 2 Główny Urząd Statystyczny (Polish) (link not available) . - Ludność według języka używanego w kontaktach domowych i deklaracji narodowościowej w 2002 r. Archived February 21, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  38. ↑ Federal State Statistics Service (Neopr.) . - All-Russian population census of 2002. The prevalence of language skills (except Russian). Archived February 2, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  39. ↑ Radio Gdańsk (neopr.) . - Po kaszubsku. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  40. ↑ Kuratorium Oświaty w Gdańsku (Polish) . - Język kaszubski. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  41. ↑ Piastowie.kei.pl (Polish) . - Słowiańszczyzna zachodnia (Map of the placement of tribal dialects of the Western Slavs in 800–950). Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  42. ↑ Gwary polskie. Przewodnik multimedialny pod redakcją Haliny Karaś (Polish) . - Terytoria formowania się dialektów polskich (Map of the location of Polish tribes in the pre-Piast era). Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  43. ↑ Gwary polskie. Przewodnik multimedialny pod redakcją Haliny Karaś (Polish) (unavailable link) . - Dialekty polskie - historia. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  44. ↑ 1 2 Ivanov V.V. Genealogical classification of languages // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief V. N. Yartseva . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2 .
  45. ↑ 1 2 Mylnikov A. S., Chistov K. V. Article Slavs // Peoples and religions of the world: Encyclopedia / Ch. Editor V. A. Tishkov ; Editorial board: O. Yu. Artemova, S. A. Arutyunov, A. N. Kozhanovsky, V. M. Makarevich (deputy head of editorial board), V. A. Popov, P. I. Puchkov (deputy head of chapter Ed.), G. Yu. Sitnyansky. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia , 1999. - S. 486-488. - ISBN 5-85270-155-6 .
  46. ↑ 1 2 3 4 Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 20.
  47. ↑ 1 2 3 Sedov V.V. Slavs: Historical and archaeological research . - M .: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2002. - ISBN 5-94457-065-2 . (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  48. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 13.
  49. ↑ Info Poland (English) (inaccessible link) . - Walter Kuhn. Die bäuerliche deutsche Ostsiedlung. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  50. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 93.
  51. ↑ Bernstein S. B. Slavic languages // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief V. N. Yartseva . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1990 .-- 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2 .
  52. ↑ 1 2 Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 24-25.
  53. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 35-36.
  54. ↑ Ler-Splavinsky T. Polish / Per. from the 2nd Polish ed. I. Kh. Dvoretsky / Ed. S. S. Vysotsky. - M .: Publishing house of foreign countries. literature, 1954. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  55. ↑ Gantskaya O. A. Article Poles // Peoples and religions of the world: Encyclopedia / Ch. Editor V. A. Tishkov ; Editorial board: O. Yu. Artemova, S. A. Arutyunov, A. N. Kozhanovsky, V. M. Makarevich (deputy head of editorial board), V. A. Popov, P. I. Puchkov (deputy head of chapter Ed.), G. Yu. Sitnyansky. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia , 1999. - S. 421-426. - ISBN 5-85270-155-6 .
  56. ↑ Główny Urząd Statystyczny (Polish) (unavailable link) . - Ludność według deklarowanej narodowości oraz województw w 2002 r. Archived February 21, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  57. ↑ Pop-stat.mashke.org (Czech) . - Ethnic composition of Czech Republic. 2001. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  58. ↑ Tikhomirova, 2005 , p. 35.
  59. ↑ 1 2 3 Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 23.
  60. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 22-23.
  61. ↑ Gwary polskie. Przewodnik multimedialny pod redakcją Haliny Karaś (Polish) (unavailable link) . - Dialekt małopolski - Kieleckie. Archived on May 20, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  62. ↑ Ananyeva, 2009 , p. 20-22.

Literature

  1. Lehr-Spławiński T. Gramatyka połabska. - Lwów: Nakład i własność KS Jakubowskiego, 1929.
  2. Bernstein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. - M. , 1961.
  3. Schuster-Shevts G. The language of the Lusatian Serbs and its place in the family of Slavic languages // Questions of linguistics. - M .: Nauka , 1976. - S. 70-86. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  4. Handke K. Terytorialne odmiany polszczyzny // Współczesny język polski / pod redakcją J. Bartmińskiego. - Lublin: Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, 2001. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  5. Tikhomirova T. S. Polish language // Languages ​​of the world: Slavic languages. - M. , 2005. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  6. Ananyeva N. E. History and dialectology of the Polish language . - 3rd ed., Rev. - M .: Librocom Book House, 2009. - ISBN 978-5-397-00628-6 .

Links

  • Ethnologue: Languages ​​of the World . - Language Family Trees. Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic. Archived on May 10, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
  • The Encyclopædia Britannica . - Article Lekhitic languages. Archived on May 10, 2012. (Retrieved March 10, 2012)
Source - https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lechite languages&oldid = 99683080


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