Nahua

The name “Nahua” ˈnaːwa- , ^[1] from Nahuatl is translated as “clear / understandable / visible”, also another variant of the word ˈnaːwat (i) can be translated as “pure speaker” or ˈnaːwat дел making clear sound ’or“ well communicating ” ^[2] . The name is the opposite of the word "popoloka" ( popoˈloka ), which translates as "vaguely speaking, and which was used in relation to other peoples and foreigners. ^{[3] The} other self-name of the Nahuatlaq people is derived from the plural word naːwaˈt͡ɬa переводka and is translated as “Nahuatl speaking people” ^[2] .

Nahua is also called the Aztecs (astecs) , although this name has a foreign origin. Despite this, most historians continue to use the term "Aztecs", describing the civilization created by the people of Nahua. Representatives of the Aztec empire called themselves Meshikatl ( meːˈʃiʔkat͡ɬ ) (singular) or meshíka ( meːˈʃiʔkaʔ ); the second word the Spanish conquerors began to denote the lands of Central America, thus the name Mexico appeared ^[4] .

Pre-Columbian Period

Archaeological excavations and linguistic studies indicate that the Nahua came from the northern deserts, where today lies the northern part of Mexico and the southern part of the United States. The migration took place in several waves ^[5] ; before settling in Mesoamerica, they lived in the neighborhood of the Kora and Huichol peoples ^[6] . The first wave of the Nahua peoples, or Pochuts , settled on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, probably by 400 AD. By about 600, the Pokuchi create a developed civilization in Mesoamerica and seize power over the peoples from the oto-manga , Totonac and Huastec ^[7] .

Around the 10th century, another Nahua group, known as the Toltecs , created a powerful statehood with the capital in Tollan , gaining power over most of Central America ^[8] .

Starting from this period, the Nahua become the dominant ethnic group in the valley of Mexico City and far beyond its borders. At the same time, the migration of other Nahua peoples from the north continued. After the fall of the Toltec empire among the Nahua, mass migration began; some migrated south and today are known as pipil . Other Nahua peoples, creating their own states and cities, fought for political superiority. To the south of Lake Texcoco, the lands were under the control of Xochimilco , the western territories were under the control of the Tepanecs , and the east was ruled by the Acolyua people. With the last wave of migration from the north, another Nahua - Meshik arrived, who, in an attempt to seize the land, were driven out to live on Lake Texcoco ; however, over the course of several centuries, they have created a powerful state, known as the Aztec civilization , and subjugated neighboring states. In the last 300 years before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Aztecs became the strongest empire in Central America, spreading their language and culture to neighboring nations.

Spanish conquest

In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando Cortes arrived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico near the Totonac state, which was under the control of the Aztec Empire, so the message about the arrival of aliens was immediately sent to the Aztec Emperor Montesume II . Moving within the country, the Spaniards entered into battle with other people Naua - Tlaxcaltek and won the victory. The Spaniards formed an alliance with the Tlaxcaltecs, who in turn wanted to get rid of the Aztec oppression ^[9] . Before the Spaniards reached Tenochtitlan , the Aztec capital, they managed to conquer several large cities controlled by the Aztecs. Although the Spaniards in the capital were warmly received, they abused the emperor and made him their puppet. The Aztec nobility, realizing this, expelled the Spaniards, who, in turn, moved to the city of Tlaxcala. A year later, with the support of a huge army of Tlaxcalteks, the Spaniards began the siege of Tenochtitlan, and a few months later the city fell, after which the Spaniards established control over the remaining regions of the Aztec empire. Having formed a new state controlled by Spain , the Spaniards recognized the Nahua people as their allies and granted them some privileges with a partial right to self-government. Recently, historians Stephanie Wood and Matthew Restall argued that the Nahua people did not perceive the Spanish conquest too painfully, as they had suffered from endless internecine wars before ^[10] .

Colonial period

In the early period of colonization, Spaniards began the process of Christianization of the population, churches were built in the largest Indian cities, missionaries spreading Christianity arrived in the country. The Spaniards also taxed the Indians. Soon the Spaniards developed the Enkomienda system, according to which the statutes for each Indian distributed labor service and he was obliged to pay tribute. Indians, distinguished by their special diligence, received labor orders. During this period, contact between the Spaniards and the local population was reduced to a minimum and concerned exclusively tax collection and the spread of Catholicism. Many nobles and hereditary rulers of Nahua - tlatoani - continued to hold power in their cities and at the same time submitted to the Spaniards, in exchange for their autonomy, they were obliged to collect tribute from the population for the Spaniards. Also, many Nahua nobles accepted Christianity, data show that in many Indian cities and villages leaders and elites bore Christian names, and some received the Spanish title of don . According to 1535, Spanish borrowing began to appear in the Nahuatl language. Also then a Latin alphabet was compiled for the language ^[11] .

Nahua played an important role in the spread of Spanish domination in selected parts of Central America. At the beginning of colonial rule in the south of Central America, the Spaniards, with the support of the army of the people of Nahua, conquered Maya , Zapotec, and Mixtec civilizations.

Later, the Christianization process took more aggressive turns, those representatives of the Nahua, who continued to worship the gods and refused to accept Christianity, subjected to severe punishments, mass executions were carried out. But even those Nahua who adopted the new religion did not refuse pagan rituals and often combined them with Christian customs, especially in the localities where the Spaniards were virtually absent. The Spaniards, with the aim of raising a new generation of nobles-Nahua, opened for them an educational institution, Santa Cruz de Tlatelolko , to educate Catholic missionaries in them. At the institution, students studied Spanish , Latin, and Nahuatlu ^[12] .

In the second period of colonial rule from the middle of the XVI century, Nahuatl absorbs more and more Spanish words, mainly nouns. Cultural assimilation of indigenous peoples begins, as evidenced by texts in the Nahuatl language, describing legal documents, transactions, advice protocols, appeals to the crown, etc. ^13] . A special exception was the large city of Tlaxcala , which once collaborated with the Spaniards in the fight against the Aztecs, who for at least 100 years after the start of colonial rule retained the traditional structure of government ^[14] .

At the end of the XVI century begins a new wave of Christianization. The Spaniards, observing how the local population mixes pagan and Christian customs, come to the conclusion that it is inappropriate to use the Indians as priests and missionaries. Thus, in 1555, all Indian priests were officially removed, although churches in local communities continued to operate. The Spaniards organized fraternities (cofradías), the purpose of which was to preach "correct Christianity", they also helped the locals in properly celebrating Christian holidays and organized funerals in accordance with Christian customs. Many locals donated money to the church, believing that they were doing virtue and saving their souls. Some of the Nahua provided the fraternity with detailed data about local residents, their kinship, property ownership, social status, and much more ^[15] . At the same time, literacy has ceased to be the property of the elite and the letter has already been used in everyday life. Many texts written in Nahuatla testify to the way of life of the local population ^{[16] [17] [18]} .

If in the 16th century, Nahuatl records were a mixture of images and words, then from the middle of the 17th century these were mostly full-fledged texts. Many Nahua writers created mixed texts based on Nahuatl and Spanish ^{[19] [20] [21]} . At the same time, texts appear for the first time, where the authors are concerned that local people have a lower social status than the Spaniards, and asserted the rights of indigenous communities to certain territories ^[22] . This is due to the gradual increase in the well-being of the Nahua, who no longer suffered from epidemics and persecution by the Spaniards ^[23] . Although, by law, indigenous communities had the right to claim land, the judges almost always resolved the dispute in favor of the Spaniards ^[24] , thus, in practice, the opportunity to receive a land plot was almost zero ^[25] .

Many Indians, including the Nahua, worked for the Spaniards mostly without a labor contract. Every wealthy Spaniard, to ensure their own security, was engaged in a constant renewal of the labor force. Then, many Nahua indigenous communities continued to exist as political actors ^[26] .

Independence Period

After Mexico gained independence, the caste system created by racial criteria was eliminated and was no longer used by the authorities, although it continued to be widespread among the population ^[27] . The new republic defined all people as citizens of the country, and not as vassals of the Spanish crown. From this period, however, practically no more Nahuatl texts are being created, and the national identity and the language of Na'ua virtually become marginalized. This is due to the fact that during the period of Spanish rule, the Nahua received additional rights and privileges over the rest of the indigenous population, and they were guaranteed the protection of language and cultural values. For example, courts were previously organized in which Indian communities could file complaints if their towns and cities were raided. After independence, such courts ceased to exist ^[28] . The new government did not recognize the rights of indigenous peoples to preserve their culture, social and economic sufficiency. The period of ethnocide begins, including the Nahua ^[29] , which leads to the fact that many indigenous peoples undergo a metisation and forget their native language ^[29] .

In the XIX century the Indian question becomes relevant. Building a new Mexican nation meant the assimilation of all peoples, and Indian communities were perceived by the authorities as the main obstacle to economic progress ^[30] . In parallel, liberal ideas are becoming more and more popular, providing for the right of every person to private property and the right of communities to own their lands ^[31] . Since land ownership was the economic basis for Native American communities and the only way to preserve national identity, the right to land ownership became the main issue of liberal democrats. As a result, in 1857, an amendment appeared in the country's constitution abolishing the practice of corporate property. This is also due to the fact that the new president of Mexico was an Indian- Zapotec ^[32] . However, later the new president establishes a dictatorship in the country and takes away sugar plantations from the Indian communities, which leads to popular unrest and, as a result, a revolution, in which the Nahua played a key role. After this, the process of cultural rebirth began among the Nahua. One of the most prominent political and cultural activists of the Nahua people was Ignacio Manuel Altamirano ^{[33] [34]} .