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Vegetarianism

Vegetarian table

Vegetarianism - nutrition of vegetable and dairy foods with the rejection of meat foods of animal origin (including poultry, fish and seafood ). Some vegetarian options may exclude dairy products.

People become vegetarians for various reasons: ethical , environmental , economic , medical , religious . There are various types of vegetarianism. Its most stringent variety is veganism .

The origin of the term

According to the Oxford Dictionary , the term vegetarian is derived from English. vegetable (plant, vegetable) [1] . The dictionary notes that the word became popular after the creation of the Vegetarian Society in Great Britain in 1847, but earlier cases of use are also given [2] .

The vegetarian society, attributing the creation of the term “vegetarian” to itself, claims that it was formed from lat. vegetus (peppy, fresh, alive) [3] .

General information

Vegetarians do not eat meat , poultry , fish and seafood . Dairy products and eggs are not consumed by only a part of vegetarians. Ambiguous attitude of vegans (vegans) to honey . Mushrooms are traditionally classified as plant foods, although modern science distinguishes them in a separate kingdom .

Some vegetarians, in addition to certain foods, also exclude:

  • clothes and other products, parts of which are made of fur , leather , etc .;
  • products, which include components of animal origin (such as glycerin [4] , gelatin , carmine );
  • products tested in animals.

Holidays:

  • October 1 - World Vegetarian Day [5] .
  • November 1 is International Vegan Day [6] .

Diet Variations

Types of food allowed in various areas of vegetarianism
Meat (including fish
and seafood)		EggsMilk
Ovolakte Vegetarianism
Not
YesYes
Ovo vegetarianism
Not
YesNot
Lacto-vegetarianism
Not
NotYes

Raw vegetarianists eat only or predominantly raw vegetable food that has not been processed (heat treatment, salting, pickling, pickling and any other types of food processing) [7] [8] . Fructorians eat raw fruits of plants - both sweet juicy fruits and berries , and hard dried nuts ; often also seeded .

The following diets are not vegetarian for various reasons.

  • Pescarianism - refusal to eat the flesh of land animals
  • Polotarianism - eating only the flesh of birds;
  • Flexitarianism is a moderate or extremely rare consumption of flesh.

The most severe variety of vegetarianism is veganism - the rejection of any animal products including milk and eggs, but the concept of vegetarianism does not mean exclusively a vegan diet and vegetarianism should not be mixed with veganism.

History

 
Vegetarian dining room in Moscow on Nikitsky Boulevard [9]

Vegetarianism has been practiced for millennia in countries where Indian religions such as Buddhism , Hinduism and Jainism were prevalent. Vegetarians were also adherents of various philosophical schools (for example, the Pythagoreans ). In India , according to various sources, vegetarians to one degree or another are from 20% to 40% of the total population [10] . Therefore, before the term “vegetarianism” appeared, this diet was called “Indian” or “Pythagorean”.

The first vegetarian society was founded in England in 1847 [11] , where vegetarianism spread, according to some, under the influence of Buddhism and Hinduism, which the English colonialists met in India. Italy is now a country where the most in Europe supporters of a vegetarian diet - 10% of the population of this country do not eat killer food [12] .

The vegetarian movement in Russia appeared at the end of the 19th century. In 1894, the first vegetarian canteen was opened in Moscow [13] , and in 1901 the first vegetarian society was registered in St. Petersburg [14] ; in 1909 the Moscow Vegetarian Society was created [15] . From 1909 to 1915 the journal “Vegetarian Herald” was published. Soon vegetarian settlements, schools, kindergartens, canteens appeared in different cities of pre-revolutionary Russia, and the influence of the writer Leo Tolstoy played a certain role in this. Vegetarianism is the main theme of one of Tolstoy's works - the essay “First Step” [16] . One of the statements illustrating the views of Leo Tolstoy regarding vegetarianism:

 For ten years a cow fed you and your children, a sheep dressed and warmed you with its wool. What is their reward for this? Cut the throat and eat? [17] 

With the advent of Soviet power, vegetarian institutions began to obstruct: increased rent for premises, introduced increased requirements for staff. Later, vegetarian societies were banned [18] , and in 1929 numerous members of the society were arrested and partially exiled to Solovki [13] .

In the last decades of the 20th century, vegetarianism has spread among adherents of the straight edge movement.

Geography

 
Indian laws require green labeling of vegetarian products ( left )

In addition to India , where a significant part of the population has a vegetarian lifestyle since ancient times, vegetarians make up a significant minority in Taiwan (14%) [19] . The proportion of vegetarians in the population of Brazil [20] , Israel [21] , Italy [22] , Germany [22] , Great Britain varies from 5 to 10%; it is less than 5% in Spain [23] , France [24] , Australia [ 25] , New Zealand . According to a 2012 statistical survey, about 5% of US residents consider themselves vegetarians [26] ; in 1971, their number was only 1%. In some Western countries, vegetarians have twice as many women as men [27] .

According to a survey of economically active Russians conducted in 2013 by the Superjob portal, 4% of respondents called themselves convinced vegetarians in Russia. 12% of respondents found it difficult to answer, and 55% said they approved the position of vegetarians. At the same time, it turned out that women approve vegetarianism more often than men (51% and 49% respectively), and that young people up to 24 years of age (7%) are more likely to refuse food of animal origin. The most convinced opponents of vegetarianism were the most among the older generation [28] .

Motives

The following are some of the motives that motivate people to become vegetarian:

  • ethical - for the sake of not causing suffering to animals, in order to avoid their exploitation and killing;
  • medical - a vegetarian diet can reduce the risk of atherosclerosis, cancer, a number of cardiovascular diseases and some diseases of the gastrointestinal tract [29] ;
  • religious beliefs ( Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , Seventh-day Adventists [30] , Rastafarianism );
  • economic - the belief that a vegetarian diet helps to save money spent on the consumption of meat products;
  • environmental - the belief that raising animals negatively affects the environment;
  • others - for example, the belief that plant foods are natural to humans.

Economic motives

People who became vegetarians for economic reasons share the view that meat consumption is not economically justified, given its negative impact on public health and the high price of meat products, making it inapplicable to fight hunger in the world.

Environmental motives

Meat production in modern conditions and scales negatively affects the environment [31] . For comparison: all world transport combined ( cars , planes and ships ) produces 13.5% of all greenhouse gases. In the production of one kilogram of beef, the emission of CO 2 into the atmosphere is equivalent to the emission of CO 2 of an average European car for every 250 km , and the energy consumed in this case is enough to operate one 100-watt bulb for almost 20 days [32] . Just a reduction in meat consumption to 70 g per week per person would already help save $ 20 trillion spent on climate change [33] .

Livestock farming is one of the reasons for rainforest reduction . Direct - for pasture, and indirect - for the cultivation of fodder crops (plants going to feed livestock) [34] . At the same time, some studies show that providing vegetarian food will require the use of more land in regions with low soil fertility [35] . On livestock farms, antibiotics are used to prevent diseases, since animals are sick a lot under crowding and stress. This in itself is not only a source of water pollution, but also the cause of the emergence of microorganisms resistant to antibiotics .

Religious motives

Vegetarianism is part of the religious beliefs of the adherents of Hinduism , Jainism and some branches of Buddhism . In Judaism , Christianity, and Islam, attitudes toward vegetarianism are not explicitly formulated.

Vegetarian Nutrition and Health

 
Wedgiburger - Vegetarian Hamburger

Vegetarian nutrition is associated with a combination of aspects related to health, and as a diet has potential advantages and disadvantages. In particular, the body receives the necessary vitamins , minerals and essential amino acids from plant or lacto - ovo- vegetarian food. It is generally accepted that for a full-fledged vegetarian diet, it is not enough just to exclude meat and other food of animal origin from the diet, it is necessary to replace it with food that is similar in nutritional value and plan the diet correctly [36] .

Nutritional issues

The level of nutrient intake by vegetarians is close to the existing recommendations, and the state of health is assessed as good, not different from that of non-vegetarians who lead a similar lifestyle, and better than the general population. A vegetarian diet, including a vegan one , is usually high in carbohydrates , omega-6 unsaturated fatty acids , dietary fiber , carotenoids , folic acid , vitamins C and E , magnesium , iron , and relatively low in protein , saturated fat , omega -3-unsaturated fatty acids with a long chain, retinol , vitamin B 12 (absent in the vegan diet without additives) and zinc . Vegetarians can receive a particularly low amount of vitamin D and calcium [37] [38] . Various studies have shown extremely low levels of vitamin B 12 in the blood of vegans, which requires the use of special food additives [39] [40] [41] .

Protein

Vegetation, by virtue of its diversity, is able to provide a sufficient amount of complete protein and satisfy human energy needs. According to WHO, spirulina contains more than 60% protein. Legumes are very rich in protein, especially soy products . All major amino acids are present, in addition to soy, in pseudo-grain crops such as buckwheat and quinoa . In other types of vegetation, one or another amino acid essential for a person may be absent, however, the combination of various types of plant foods during the day resolves this difficulty, providing the body with a complete protein. The need for protein by non-strict vegetarians is also covered by milk and its products and / or eggs. A vegetarian diet, including a vegan diet, satisfies the protein requirements of even athletes [42] [43] [44] . For example, a combination of oat and pea proteins can achieve the optimal ratio of amino acids that meets the requirements of the FAO / WHO to a complete protein [45] . The usefulness of pea protein is limited by sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, while oat protein has more than enough sulfur-containing amino acids, but is limited by the amino acid lysine. Due to the complementary amino acid composition, oat and pea proteins can be successfully used in the nutrition of athletes, in baby food, foods for the elderly, and in foods to control appetite and reduce body weight [46] .

Iron

A vegetarian diet usually contains similar levels of iron compared to a non-vegetarian diet, but in the first case, iron has less bioavailability than iron from meat products, and its absorption can sometimes be suppressed by other components of a vegetarian diet [47] . From rice and spinach, the human body can absorb no more than 1% of the iron contained therein, from corn and beans - no more than 3%, from soy beans - up to 7%. The assimilation from animal food is higher (beef - up to 22%, fish - about 11%, eggs - no more than 3%) [48] .

According to The Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming foods containing vitamin C (citrus fruits and juices, tomatoes, broccoli) is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed from food [49] . Some vegetarian foods are known for their high iron content: black beans, cashew nuts , hemp seeds, beans , broccoli, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, spinach , cabbage, lettuce, peas, soy, many breakfast cereals, seeds, chickpeas , tomato juice, tempeh , molasses , caraway seeds and whole grain bread [50] . The vegan diet may have a higher iron content than the vegetarian diet, as there is little iron in dairy products [51] .

Vegetarians often have lower iron stores than non-vegetarians. Several studies, each involving dozens of people, have noted very high iron deficiency rates (up to 40% [52] and 58% [53] for the vegetarian or vegan groups, respectively). However, according to the American Dietetic Association, iron deficiency is not more common among vegetarians than non-vegetarians (iron deficiency is very rare in adult men); iron deficiency anemia is a rarity regardless of diet [54] .

Zinc

Due to the fact that phytates interfere with the absorption of zinc, and animal protein is believed to enhance it, vegetarians have lower absorption of zinc than non-vegetarians, although there have been no cases of deficiency. As in the case of iron, the absorption of zinc can be increased by soaking and germinating legumes, grains and seeds, as well as souring bread [42] .

Calcium

low in oxalates ( Peking cabbage , broccoli , kale ) provide the body with higher digestibility calcium (49–61%) compared to cow's milk (31–32%), sesame seeds , almonds , and beans (21 -24%). Additional sources of calcium for vegetarians are figs , chia , molasses , soybeans and tempeh . Although calcium is present in many types of plant foods, many vegetarians opt for plant foods that are specifically enriched with this element, such as juices or bean curd , in the manufacture of which calcium compounds are used to make up for calcium. For lacto-vegetarians, the level of calcium intake is comparable to that and even higher than for non-vegetarians, whereas for strict vegetarians it is the lowest, often below the recommended level [42] .

Essential Fatty Acids

A vegetarian diet, usually rich in omega-6 fatty acids , is often poor in omega-3 fatty acids . If there are no eggs or specific algae in the diet, the vegetarian may lack eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). В человеческом организме происходит преобразование альфа- линоленовой кислоты (ALA), жирной кислоты омега-3 растительного происхождения, в EPA и DHA, поэтому вегетарианцы должны включать в свой рацион хорошие источники ALA, такие, как льняное масло и льняное семя, грецкие орехи, рапсовое, конопляное и соевое масла [42] .

Витамин A

Еда животного происхождения содержит готовый витамин A , в шесть раз более активный, чем растительный провитамин A ( каротин и другие каротиноиды ), которые должны ещё подвергнуться химическим превращениям, прежде чем они смогут быть использованы организмом [55] . Вследствие этого, вегетарианцы могут страдать от гиповитаминоза A, если они употребляют недостаточно продуктов, богатых каротином [55] .

Витамин D

Растительность не является источником витамина D, но он присутствует в небольших количествах в молоке и его продуктах и яйцах. Необходимое количество витамина организм синтезирует под воздействием УФ-излучения солнечного света. Пребывание на солнце в течение 15 минут в летнее время на 42 широте обеспечивает необходимым количеством витамина, однако в зимнее время и в более высоких широтах это составляет проблему, поэтому вегетарианцам рекомендуется приём добавок витамина [42] . Также под воздействием УФ-излучения витамин синтезируется в грибах, в частности, в шампиньонах: 5 минут облучения свежесрезанного гриба достаточно, чтобы количество вещества поднялось до уровня почти в 10 раз больше дневной нормы употребления его человеком [56] [57] .

Витамин B 12

Растительность не содержит витамин B 12 в подходящей для человека форме, однако он содержится в молочных продуктах и яйцах, поэтому нестрогие вегетарианцы получают его в необходимом количестве при регулярном их употреблении. Строгим вегетарианцам необходим приём добавки витамина или употребление обогащённой им пищи [42] . Нехватка витамина B 12 часто встречается среди вегетарианцев [58] [59] [60] , и ряд исследований связывает с этим дефицитом ослабление костей, часто возникающее при отказе от употребления продуктов животного происхождения [58] , а иногда и ухудшение памяти [61] . Хронический недостаток в организме витамина B 12 способствует развитию злокачественного малокровия в виде пернициозной анемии [59] .

Следование веганской или вегетарианской [62] диете кормящей матерью без приёма витамина B 12 в виде пищевой добавки может привести к чрезвычайно тяжёлым последствиям для ребёнка вследствие дефицита этого витамина [63] .

Интеллект

Исследование 8170 человек , чей коэффициент интеллекта был оценен в возрасте 10 лет , показало, что те из них, кто стал вегетарианцем к 30 годам , имели в среднем более высокий коэффициент интеллекта в детстве [64] . Это может быть обусловлено лучшим образованием и более высоким положением в обществе, тем не менее, результат остаётся статистически значимым после учёта этих факторов. Руководитель исследований Кэтрин Гейл предлагает следующее объяснение: более умные дети больше думают о том, что едят, что в ряде случаев приводит их к вегетарианству. Единственный невегетарианец в составе команды исследователей Иэн Диэри полагает, что обнаруженная связь между вегетарианством и коэффициентом интеллекта может не быть причинно-следственной. По его мнению, становление человека как вегетарианца — один из множества более или менее случайных «культурных выборов», которые делают умные люди, и этот выбор может быть, а может не быть полезен для здоровья. Было также установлено, что чаще вегетарианцами оказываются женщины, они чаще занимают более высокое общественное положение и имеют более высокую степень образовательной и профессиональной подготовки, хотя эти различия не отражаются в их годовом доходе, который не отличается от такового у невегетарианцев. Любопытно также, что исследования не выявили разницы в коэффициенте интеллекта между строгими вегетарианцами и теми, кто употреблял рыбу и кур, однако называли себя вегетарианцами [64] . Выявленную связь можно объяснить склонностью людей с высоким уровнем интеллекта к нонконформизму и способностью безопасного существования в нём [65] .

Заболеваемость

Сердечно-сосудистые заболевания

Проведённый в 1999 году анализ результатов пяти крупнейших исследований, сравнивавших уровень смертности среди более чем 76 000 вегетарианцев и невегетарианцев, ведущих схожий образ жизни, показал, что смертность вегетарианцев от ишемической болезни сердца , следовавших своей диете более 5 лет , на 24 % ниже невегетарианцев [66] .

В 2013 году опубликованы результаты обследования более 44,5 тысяч человек, находившихся под наблюдением с 1990 по 2009 год, 34 % из которых являлись вегетарианцами, показавшие, что у вегетарианцев риск заболевания и смерти от ишемической болезни сердца на 32 % меньше, чем у невегетарианцев [67] .

Артериальное давление у строгих вегетарианцев ниже, чем у невегетарианцев, среди них реже встречается гипертония , что примерно в половине случаев объясняется разницей в весе тела [68] . Этот показатель не отличается между нестрогими вегетарианцами и теми, кто ест рыбу [69] .

Раковые заболевания

По результатам непредставительного исследования более 63,5 тысяч человек в рамках EPIC-Oxford , установлено, что среди вегетарианцев реже встречается заболеваемость раком (всеми видами в совокупности), при этом случаи рака толстого кишечника были чаще среди вегетарианцев [70] . Следует отметить, что группа испытуемых не была представительной: как вегетарианцы, так и испытуемые, потреблявшие мясо, показали более низкую частоту раковых заболеваний, чем в среднем по стране. По результатам исследования более 34 тысяч адвентистов седьмого дня в Калифорнии, рак кишечника встречался намного чаще у невегетарианцев [71] .

Результаты исследования более 69 тысяч человек в рамках Adventist Health Study-2, опубликованные в 2012 году, показали, что в сравнении с невегетарианской, вегетарианская диета была связана со значимым снижением риска раковых заболеваний. Подразделение показало, что веганская диета была связана с меньшим риском раковых заболеваний для обоих полов в совокупности, а также меньшим риском раковых заболеваний, присущих женщинам, а лакто-ово-вегетарианская диета была связана с меньшим риском заболевания раком ЖКТ [72] .

Согласно исследованию австрийского медицинского университета в 2013 году, у вегетарианцев вероятность рака выше, чем у невегетарианцев [73] .

По данным ВОЗ за 2015 год, мясная продукция относится к канцерогенной, в частности к группе 1 по классификации МАИР , а красное мясо признано «вероятно канцерогенным» и отнесено к группе 2А [74] . Согласно заключению ВОЗ, ежедневное потребление в пищу 50 грамм мясной продукции увеличивает риск развития колоректального рака на 18 % [75] .

Согласно другим исследованиям, зависимости раковых заболеваний от диеты не наблюдается [66] [76] [77] .

Диабет

Веганская и вегетарианская диеты связаны со сниженным риском заболевания диабетом 2-го типа почти вдвое в сравнении с невегетарианской диетой [78] [79] .

Исследованием «Комитета врачей за ответственную медицину» в 1999 году установлено, что веганская диета с цельной растительностью, низкая по содержанию жира, способствует большему снижению веса и понижению уровня сахара в крови, нежели невегетарианская [80] . Более масштабное по количеству участников и продолжительности исследование той же научной группы в 2004—2005 годах выявило, что веганская диета с цельной растительностью, низкая по содержанию жира, столь же, если не более эффективна в лечении диабета, как и рекомендованная Американской диабетической ассоциацией. Ограниченная по калорийности вегетарианская диета значительно увеличила чувствительность к инсулину в сравнении с обычной диабетической диетой [81] [82] [83] [84] .

Вегетарианская диета связана со значительно меньшим риском метаболического синдрома , совокупности расстройств, приводящих к развитию диабета и сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний [85] .

Ожирение

У вегетарианцев значение индекса массы тела меньше, чем у невегетарианцев, но не отличается от такового у тех, кто ест рыбу. Этот показатель значительно меньше у строгих вегетарианцев [79] [86] .

Мозг и психическое состояние

По результатам исследования 138 адвентистов седьмого дня было установлено, что вегетарианцы имели значительно меньшее количество отрицательных эмоций, нежели невегетарианцы, что объясняется большим количеством принимаемых вегетарианцами с пищей полиненасыщенных жирных кислот в целом и незначительным количеством арахидоновой кислоты , источником которой является пища животного происхождения [87] . Согласно исследованию 39 человек теми же авторами, ограничения в употреблении мяса, рыбы и птицы в некоторых вопросах улучшали эмоциональное состояние невегетарианцев в краткосрочном периоде [88] .

Другие заболевания

  • Катаракта встречается на 30 % реже среди нестрогих вегетарианцев и на 40 % реже среди строгих, чем среди людей, употребляющих более 100 г мяса в день [89] .
  • У вегетарианцев (включая строгих) на 31 % ниже риск возникновения камней в почках в сравнении с теми, кто ест рыбу или более 50 г мяса в день [90] .
  • У вегетарианцев на 31 % реже заболеваемость дивертикулёзом [91] .
  • Голодание, следующее за периодом вегетарианской диеты, может оказывать благотворное влияние в лечении ревматоидного артрита [92] [93] .
  • Вегетарианская диета способствует понижению повышенного уровня фосфора в крови и моче у страдающих хронической болезнью почек . Выявлено, что животный белок в противоположность растительному отрицательно влияет на концентрацию фосфора в организме [94] . Вдобавок у вегетарианцев на 60 % ниже уровень двух сульфатов PCS и IS, которые, как считается, являются токсичными и вызывают проблемы у страдающих заболеванием почек [95] .

Смертность

В исследовании EPIC-Oxford с участием 64 234 британцев было установлено, что в целом смертность среди вегетарианцев и невегетарианцев, в чей рацион у среднего мужчины и средней женщины входили 79 и 67 грамм мяса в день соответственно, отличается незначительно, при этом смертность испытуемых оказалась значительно ниже, чем в среднем по стране [96] .

A study of Adventist Health Study-2 involving more than 96,000 Adventists found that among all groups of vegetarians, mortality was on average 12% lower than among non-vegetarians. Among vegans compared with non-vegetarians, this indicator was lower by 15%, among dairy and egg vegetarians - by 9%, among pesketarians - by 19%, and among semi-vegetarians - by 8%. A significant degree of dependence was found between adherence to a vegetarian diet and a reduced risk of death from cardiovascular diseases, due to impaired renal function and the endocrine system, as well as for other reasons not related to cancer. This relationship is most pronounced for men than for women [97] .

Genetic effects

According to scientists from Cornell University, in people in populations where they have been following a vegetarian diet for a long time (many generations), the probability of the presence of the rs66698963 mutation in the FADS2 gene is significantly increased. This mutation promotes the absorption of essential fatty acids from plant foods, but at the same time makes the body more susceptible to inflammation and cancer as a result of increased production of arachidonic acid . The same mutation prevents the production of omega-3-unsaturated fatty acids , which are considered to be protective against heart disease. This finding probably explains the 40% increased risk of colorectal cancer in hereditary populations of vegetarians [98] .

Life

An analysis of the results of 6 large studies of life expectancy claims that a very low or zero level of meat consumption is associated with a significant increase in life expectancy. Long-term (over 20 years ) commitment to vegetarianism can increase life expectancy by an average of 3.6 years [99] . One of the analyzes included in the analysis, California Seventh-Day Adventists , which studied the life expectancy of more than 34,000 California Seventh-day Adventists , found that the average life expectancy of Adventist vegetarians is higher than that of Adventist non-vegetarians — by approximately 7.3 years for men and 4.4 years for women [100] .

Official Positions of Medical and Dietetic Organizations

According to the US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics published in 2016 [101] , a properly planned vegetarian or vegan diet is healthy and can provide health benefits, prevention, and treatment for certain diseases. It is suitable for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, youth, adulthood and old age, as well as for athletes. Vegetarians and vegans have a reduced risk of developing certain diseases, including coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes , hypertension, certain types of cancer and obesity. Low consumption of saturated fats and high consumption of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, soy products, nuts and seeds provide lower levels of total cholesterol and low density lipoproteins, as well as effective control of serum glucose. These factors contribute to the reduction of chronic diseases. Vegans need reliable sources of vitamin B 12 , such as fortified foods or supplements.

The American Cancer Society believes that a vegetarian diet presumably reduces the risk of cancer and can contribute to better health, as it implies a high content of vitamins, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, and, conversely, a low content of saturated fats [102] .

According to the American Diabetes Association, scientific studies have found a link between a vegetarian diet and a lower risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes [103] . Vegetarians have lower blood pressure and lower LDL cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol) [103] . Studies confirm that following a vegetarian diet can prevent diabetes and can also help cope with the disease [104] .

Vegetarian Cuisine

 
Vegetarian Dining in Taiwan

Vegetarian cuisine includes:

  • products from fresh fruits, vegetables and nuts without processing: numerous salads , fruit desserts ;
  • products from vegetables , cereals , mushrooms with processing: all kinds of baked and stewed dishes, falafel , rice meatballs , eggplant caviar ;
  • legumes ( chickpeas , soybeans ), various snacks, such as vegetable paste, hummus , etc.

Many dishes of traditional cuisine of all nations are essentially vegetarian, since animal protein has always been too expensive for everyday dishes of ordinary people.

See also

  • Veganism
  • Raw food diet
  • Permaculture
  • Anarcho-primitivism
  • Test tube meat
  • International Vegetarian Union
  • Animal rights
  • Food instead of bombs
  • Juliet gellatly
  • Hare Krishna - the food of life
  • Flexitarianism
  • Hitler's Vegetarianism
  • Carnism

Notes

  1. ↑ Definition of vegetarian from Oxford Dictionaries Online . Date of treatment August 11, 2010. Archived August 24, 2011.
  2. ↑ The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology - Oxford - 1966 - S. 972
  3. ↑ 10 quick vegetarian facts, part 1 (English) (PDF). Date of treatment March 12, 2011. Archived August 24, 2011.
  4. ↑ Since glycerin can be not only synthetic, but also of animal origin.
  5. ↑ World Vegetarian Day official website
  6. ↑ World Vegan Day official website
  7. ↑ Raw Meat and Fish. Something to consider Archived September 21, 2011 on the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ Summer is a paradise for a raw foodist // The Art of Living
  9. ↑ Vladimir Kolganov. Bulgakov and "Margarita", or the story of the unfortunate love of the "Master" . - 2012 .-- 336 s. - ISBN 978-5-227-03752-7 . (inaccessible link)
  10. ↑ Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: “Diary and poultry sector growth in India” , “Indian consumer patterns” Archived June 21, 2009. and “Agri reform in India” Archived on December 28, 2006. .
  11. ↑ Vegetarianism // Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary : in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
  12. ↑ Bazzi, Adrianna (February 12, 2009). "Vegetariano un italiano su dieci." Corriere della Sera. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
  13. ↑ 1 2 Peter Brang. Unknown Russia: The history of the culture of vegetarian lifestyles from the beginning to the present day / Per. with him. Anna Bernold. - Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2006. - 730 p. - ISBN 5–9551–0138–1.
  14. ↑ About the current situation of vegetarianism in Russia
  15. ↑ Moscow Vegetarian Society. Review for 1909 . (inaccessible link)
  16. ↑ Humanitarian Environmental Journal. Volume VI, no. 2. 2004 Archived September 28, 2007 on the Wayback Machine
  17. ↑ Tolstoy L.N. The Way of Life Archival copy of January 30, 2014 on the Wayback Machine . - M .: "Republic", 1993.
  18. ↑ Ilyina I.N. Public organizations of Russia in the 1920s . - M, 2000.
  19. ↑ Greens Are Good For You - Features - Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in New York 駐 紐約 台北 經濟 文化 辦事處 (unopened) (link not available) . Archived July 16, 2011.
  20. ↑ Dia Mundial do Vegetarianismo: 8% da população brasileira afirma ser adepta do estilo (neopr.) .
  21. ↑ תופעת הצמחונות כובשת את הארץ (unopened) .
  22. ↑ 1 2 Vegetariano un italiano su dieci - Corriere della Sera (neopr.) .
  23. ↑ EVU! - How many Veggies (neopr.) . Archived on August 17, 2012.
  24. ↑ French government 'banning vegetarianism' in school canteens | Life and style | theguardian.com ( unopened ) .
  25. ↑ APF - VVSQ (neopr.) .
  26. ↑ In US, 5% Consider Themselves Vegetarians (Neopr.) .
  27. ↑ Archived copy (unopened) (inaccessible link) . Date of treatment May 17, 2009. Archived July 7, 2011.
  28. ↑ Ekaterina Dobrynina. Supporters of vegetarianism in Russia is becoming less (neopr.) . Russian newspaper (November 20, 2013). Date of treatment August 13, 2014.
  29. ↑ Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets
  30. ↑ Vegetarianism is encouraged, but not doctrinal.
  31. ↑ The true cost of meat
  32. ↑ Meat is murder on the environment
  33. ↑ Ditch meat, save the Earth? (eng.)
  34. ↑ Amazon Destruction
  35. ↑ Diet With A Little Meat Uses Less Land Than Many Vegetarian Diets
  36. ↑ Vegetarianism, Good Idea, or Not? By Clark C. Casteel
  37. ↑ Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets Archived January 12, 2012.
  38. ↑ EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33,883 meat-eaters and 31,546 non meat-eaters in the UK Archived February 19, 2012.
  39. ↑ Rauma AL , Törrönen R. , Hänninen O. , Mykkänen H. Vitamin B-12 status of long-term adherents of a strict uncooked vegan diet ("living food diet") is compromised. (Eng.) // The Journal of nutrition. - 1995. - Vol. 125, no. 10 . - P. 2511-2515. - PMID 7562085 .
  40. ↑ Donaldson MS Metabolic Vitamin B12 status on a mostly raw vegan diet with follow-up using tablets, nutritional yeast, or probiotic supplements. (Eng.) // Annals of nutrition & metabolism. - 2000. - Vol. 44, no. 5-6 . - P. 229-234. - DOI : 10.1159 / 000046689 . - PMID 11146329 .
  41. ↑ Dong A. , Scott SC Serum vitamin B12 and blood cell values ​​in vegetarians. (Eng.) // Annals of nutrition & metabolism. - 1982. - Vol. 26, no. 4 . - P. 209-216. - PMID 6897159 .
  42. ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Error in footnotes ? : Invalid <ref> ; no text for ADA footnotes
  43. ↑ Physical fitness and vegetarian diets: is there a relation? (unavailable link from 07/20/2015 [1491 days])
  44. ↑ Rodriguez NR , DiMarco NM , Langley S. Position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. (Eng.) // Journal of the American Dietetic Association. - 2009. - Vol. 109, no. 3 . - P. 509-527. - PMID 19278045 .
  45. ↑ Consultation FE. Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 2013: 1-66
  46. ↑ Development of a complex composition of plant proteins with a complete set of amino acids. Business food ingredients. 2018; 1: p. 22-27
  47. ↑ Vegetarian Society - Factsheet - Iron (Neopr.) (Link not available) . Vegsoc.org (September 22, 2014). Date of treatment July 25, 2015. Archived on April 29, 2013.
  48. ↑ Idelsson L.I. Iron Exchange. S. 160—161 [ specify ]
  49. ↑ Vegetarianism in a Nutshell (Neopr.) . Vrg.org. Date of treatment July 25, 2015.
  50. ↑ // Health Issues // Optimal Vegan Nutrition (Neopr.) . Goveg.com. Date of treatment July 25, 2015. (unavailable link from 07.24-2015 [1487 days])
  51. ↑ Davey GK , Spencer EA , Appleby PN , Allen NE , Knox KH , Key TJ EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33,883 meat-eaters and 31,546 non meat-eaters in the UK. (English) // Public health nutrition. - 2003. - Vol. 6, no. 3 . - P. 259-269. - DOI : 10.1079 / PHN2002430 . - PMID 12740075 .
  52. ↑ Waldmann A. , Koschizke JW , Leitzmann C. , Hahn A. Dietary iron intake and iron status of German female vegans: results of the German vegan study. (Eng.) // Annals of nutrition & metabolism. - 2004. - Vol. 48, no. 2 . - P. 103-108. - DOI : 10.1159 / 000077045 . - PMID 14988640 .
  53. ↑ Krajcovicová-Kudlácková M. , Simoncic R. , Béderová A. , Grancicová E. , Magálová T. Influence of vegetarian and mixed nutrition on selected haematological and biochemical parameters in children. (Eng.) // Die Nahrung. - 1997. - Vol. 41, no. 5 . - P. 311-314. - PMID 9399258 .
  54. ↑ Bistrian B. By the way, doctor. I read in the April issue that one of the nutrition experts eats five servings of fish a week. Why so much? And isn't there a risk from the contaminants? (Eng.) // Harvard health letter / from Harvard Medical School. - 2009. - Vol. 34, no. 7 . - P. 4. - PMID 19562854 .
  55. ↑ 1 2 Bourre JM Effects of nutrients (in food) on the structure and function of the nervous system: update on dietary requirements for brain. Part 1: micronutrients (Eng.) // J Nutr Health Aging : journal. - 2006. - Vol. 10 , no. 5 . - P. 377-385 . - PMID 17066209 .
  56. ↑ FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition and the Mushroom Council Collaborate to Optimize the Natural Vitamin D Content of Edible Mushrooms and to Examine their Health Benefits in Different Rodent Models of Innate Immunity September 26, 2011 on Wayback Machine (link not available 07/20/2015 [1491 days])
  57. ↑ Koyyalamudi SR , Jeong SC , Song CH , Cho KY , Pang G. Vitamin D2 formation and bioavailability from Agaricus bisporus button mushrooms treated with ultraviolet irradiation. (English) // Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. - 2009. - Vol. 57, no. 8 . - P. 3351-3355. - DOI : 10.1021 / jf803908q . - PMID 19281276 .
  58. ↑ 1 2 Vitamin B12 Linked to Osteoporosis and Bone Loss in Vegetarians (Neopr.) (April 29, 2011). Archived March 9, 2013.
  59. ↑ 1 2 Stabler SP, Allen RH Vitamin B12 deficiency as a worldwide problem (Eng.) // Annu. Rev. Nutr. : journal. - 2004. - Vol. 24 . - P. 299—326 . - DOI : 10.1146 / annurev.nutr.24.012003.132440 . - PMID 15189123 . Archived December 2, 2013. Archived December 2, 2013 by Wayback Machine
  60. ↑ Aśok C. Antony. Vegetarianism and Vitamin B-12 (cobalamin) deficiency // The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. - July 2003. - T. 78 , No. 1 . - S. 3-6 . - ISSN 0002-9165 .
  61. ↑ Vogiatzoglou A. et al. Vitamin B12 status and rate of brain volume loss in community-dwelling elderly (English) // Neurology : journal. - Wolters Kluwer 2008 .-- 9 September ( vol. 71 , no. 11 ). - P. 826-832 . - DOI : 10.1212 / 01.wnl.0000325581.26991.f2 .
  62. ↑ Wighton MC , Manson JI , Speed ​​I. , Robertson E. , Chapman E. Brain damage in infancy and dietary vitamin B12 deficiency. (English) // The Medical journal of Australia. - 1979. - Vol. 2, no. 1 . - P. 1-3. - PMID 502936 .
  63. ↑ Kühne T. , Bubl R. , Baumgartner R. Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency. (English) // European journal of pediatrics. - 1991. - Vol. 150, no. 3 . - P. 205-208. - PMID 2044594 .
  64. ↑ 1 2 Gale CR , Deary IJ , Schoon I. , Batty GD IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood: 1970 British cohort study. (English) // BMJ (Clinical research ed.). - 2007. - Vol. 334, no. 7587 . - P. 245. - DOI : 10.1136 / bmj.39030.675069.55 . - PMID 17175567 .
  65. ↑ Kobe Millet. Non-conformity may be hidden driver behind relation (English) // BMJ. - 2007. - Vol. 334, no. 7589 . - P. 327–328. - DOI : 10.1136 / bmj.39121.870139.1F .
  66. ↑ 1 2 Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies Archived September 26, 2011.
  67. ↑ Crowe FL , Appleby PN , Travis RC , Key TJ Risk of hospitalization or death from ischemic heart disease among British vegetarians and nonvegetarians: results from the EPIC-Oxford cohort study. (English) // The American journal of clinical nutrition. - 2013 .-- Vol. 97, no. 3 . - P. 597-603. - DOI : 10.3945 / ajcn.112.044073 . - PMID 23364007 .
  68. ↑ Pettersen BJ , Anousheh R. , Fan J. , Jaceldo-Siegl K. , Fraser GE Vegetarian diets and blood pressure among white subjects: results from the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2). (English) // Public health nutrition. - 2012. - Vol. 15, no. 10 . - P. 1909-1916. - DOI : 10.1017 / S1368980011003454 . - PMID 22230619 .
  69. ↑ Appleby PN , Davey GK , Key TJ Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans in EPIC-Oxford. (English) // Public health nutrition. - 2002. - Vol. 5, no. 5 . - P. 645-654. - DOI : 10.1079 / PHN2002332 . - PMID 12372158 .
  70. ↑ Key TJ , Appleby PN , Spencer EA , Travis RC , Roddam AW , Allen NE Cancer incidence in vegetarians: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Oxford). (English) // The American journal of clinical nutrition. - 2009. - Vol. 89, no. 5 . - P. 1620-1626. - DOI : 10.3945 / ajcn.2009.26736M . - PMID 19279082 .
  71. ↑ Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists (unavailable link from 07/20/2015 [1491 days])
  72. ↑ Tantamango-Bartley Y. , Jaceldo-Siegl K. , Fan J. , Fraser G. Vegetarian diets and the incidence of cancer in a low-risk population. (English) // Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention: a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology. - 2013 .-- Vol. 22, no. 2 . - P. 286-294. - DOI : 10.1158 / 1055-9965.EPI-12-1060 . - PMID 23169929 .
  73. ↑ Nutrition and Health - The Association between Eating Behavior and Various Health Parameters: A Matched Sample Study
  74. ↑ Questions and answers about the carcinogenicity of red meat and meat products (neopr.) (2015).
  75. ↑ The International Agency for Research on Cancer estimates the consumption of red meat and meat products (neopr.) (2015).
  76. ↑ Key TJ , Appleby PN , Rosell MS Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets. (Eng.) // The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. - 2006. - Vol. 65, no. 1 . - P. 35-41. - PMID 16441942 .
  77. ↑ Truswell AS Meat consumption and cancer of the large bowel. (English) // European journal of clinical nutrition. - 2002. - Vol. 56 Suppl 1. - P. 19-24. - DOI : 10.1038 / sj.ejcn.1601349 . - PMID 11965518 .
  78. ↑ Tonstad S. , Stewart K. , Oda K. , Batech M. , Herring RP , Fraser GE Vegetarian diets and incidence of diabetes in the Adventist Health Study-2. (Eng.) // Nutrition, metabolism, and cardiovascular diseases: NMCD. - 2013 .-- Vol. 23, no. 4 . - P. 292-299. - DOI : 10.1016 / j.numecd.2011.07.004 . - PMID 21983060 .
  79. ↑ 1 2 Tonstad S. , Butler T. , Yan R. , Fraser GE Type of vegetarian diet, body weight, and prevalence of type 2 diabetes. (English) // Diabetes care. - 2009. - Vol. 32, no. 5 . - P. 791-796. - DOI : 10.2337 / dc08-1886 . - PMID 19351712 .
  80. ↑ Nicholson AS , Sklar M. , Barnard ND , Gore S. , Sullivan R. , Browning S. Toward improved management of NIDDM: A randomized, controlled, pilot intervention using a lowfat, vegetarian diet. (English) // Preventive medicine. - 1999. - Vol. 29, no. 2 . - P. 87-91. - DOI : 10.1006 / pmed.1999.0529 . - PMID 10446033 .
  81. ↑ Barnard ND , Cohen J. , Jenkins DJ , Turner-McGrievy G. , Gloede L. , Jaster B. , Seidl K. , Green AA , Talpers S. A low-fat vegan diet improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in a randomized clinical trial in individuals with type 2 diabetes. (English) // Diabetes care. - 2006. - Vol. 29, no. 8 . - P. 1777-1783. - DOI : 10.2337 / dc06-0606 . - PMID 16873779 .
  82. ↑ Turner-McGrievy GM , Barnard ND , Cohen J. , Jenkins DJ , Gloede L. , Green AA Changes in nutrient intake and dietary quality among participants with type 2 diabetes following a low-fat vegan diet or a conventional diabetes diet for 22 weeks . (Eng.) // Journal of the American Dietetic Association. - 2008 .-- Vol. 108, no. 10 . - P. 1636-1645. - DOI : 10.1016 / j.jada.2008.07.07.015 . - PMID 18926128 .
  83. ↑ Barnard ND , Cohen J. , Jenkins DJ , Turner-McGrievy G. , Gloede L. , Green A. , Ferdowsian H. A low-fat vegan diet and a conventional diabetes diet in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled, 74-wk clinical trial. (English) // The American journal of clinical nutrition. - 2009. - Vol. 89, no. 5 . - P. 1588-1596. - DOI : 10.3945 / ajcn.2009.26736H . - PMID 19339401 .
  84. ↑ Barnard ND , Gloede L. , Cohen J. , Jenkins DJ , Turner-McGrievy G. , Green AA , Ferdowsian H. A low-fat vegan diet elicits greater macronutrient changes, but is comparable in adherence and acceptability, compared with a more conventional diabetes diet among individuals with type 2 diabetes. (Eng.) // Journal of the American Dietetic Association. - 2009. - Vol. 109, no. 2 . - P. 263—272. - DOI : 10.1016 / j.jada.2008.10.10.049 . - PMID 19167953 .
  85. ↑ Rizzo NS , Sabaté J. , Jaceldo-Siegl K. , Fraser GE Vegetarian dietary patterns are associated with a lower risk of metabolic syndrome: the adventist health study 2. (Eng.) // Diabetes care. - 2011. - Vol. 34, no. 5 . - P. 1225-1227. - DOI : 10.2337 / dc10-1221 . - PMID 21411506 .
  86. ↑ Spencer EA , Appleby PN , Davey GK , Key TJ Diet and body mass index in 38000 EPIC-Oxford meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans. (English) // International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders: journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. - 2003. - Vol. 27, no. 6 . - P. 728-734. - DOI : 10.1038 / sj.ijo.0802300 . - PMID 12833118 .
  87. ↑ Beezhold BL , Johnston CS , Daigle DR Vegetarian diets are associated with healthy mood states: a cross-sectional study in seventh day adventist adults. (Eng.) // Nutrition journal. - 2010 .-- Vol. 9. - P. 26. - DOI : 10.1186 / 1475-2891-9-26 . - PMID 20515497 .
  88. ↑ Beezhold BL , Johnston CS Restriction of meat, fish, and poultry in omnivores improves mood: a pilot randomized controlled trial. (Eng.) // Nutrition journal. - 2012. - Vol. 11. - P. 9. - DOI : 10.1186 / 1475-2891-11-9 . - PMID 22333737 .
  89. ↑ Appleby PN , Allen NE , Key TJ Diet, vegetarianism, and cataract risk. (English) // The American journal of clinical nutrition. - 2011. - Vol. 93, no. 5 . - P. 1128-1135. - DOI : 10.3945 / ajcn.110.004028 . - PMID 21430115 .
  90. ↑ Turney BW , Appleby PN , Reynard JM , Noble JG , Key TJ , Allen NE Diet and risk of kidney stones in the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). (English) // European journal of epidemiology. - 2014 .-- Vol. 29, no. 5 . - P. 363-369. - DOI : 10.1007 / s10654-014-9904-5 . - PMID 24752465 .
  91. ↑ Crowe FL , Appleby PN , Allen NE , Key TJ Diet and risk of diverticular disease in Oxford cohort of European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): prospective study of British vegetarians and non-vegetarians. (English) // BMJ (Clinical research ed.). - 2011. - Vol. 343. - P. 4131. - DOI : 10.1136 / bmj.d4131 . - PMID 21771850 .
  92. ↑ Müller H. , de Toledo FW , Resch KL Fasting followed by vegetarian diet in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. (English) // Scandinavian journal of rheumatology. - 2001. - Vol. 30, no. 1 . - P. 1-10. - DOI : 10.1080 / 030097401750065256 . - PMID 11252685 .
  93. ↑ Kjeldsen-Kragh J. Rheumatoid arthritis treated with vegetarian diets. (English) // The American journal of clinical nutrition. - 1999. - Vol. 70, no. 3 Suppl . - P. 594-600. - PMID 10479237 .
  94. ↑ Moe SM , Zidehsarai MP , Chambers MA , Jackman LA , Radcliffe JS , Trevino LL , Donahue SE , Asplin JR Vegetarian compared with meat dietary protein source and phosphorus homeostasis in chronic kidney disease. (English) // Clinical journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN. - 2011. - Vol. 6, no. 2 . - P. 257-264. - DOI : 10.2215 / CJN.05040610 . - PMID 21183586 .
  95. ↑ Patel KP , Luo FJ , Plummer NS , Hostetter TH , Meyer TW The production of p-cresol sulfate and indoxyl sulfate in vegetarians versus omnivores. (English) // Clinical journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN. - 2012. - Vol. 7, no. 6 . - P. 982-988. - DOI : 10.2215 / CJN.12491211 . - PMID 22490877 .
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  97. ↑ Orlich MJ , Singh PN , Sabaté J. , Jaceldo-Siegl K. , Fan J. , Knutsen S. , Beeson WL , Fraser GE Vegetarian dietary patterns and mortality in Adventist Health Study 2. (Eng.) // JAMA internal medicine . - 2013 .-- Vol. 173, no. 13 . - P. 1230-1238. - DOI : 10.1001 / jamainternmed.2013.6473 . - PMID 23836264 .
  98. ↑ Long term vegetarian diet changes human DNA raising risk of cancer and heart disease
  99. ↑ Singh PN , Sabaté J. , Fraser GE Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans? (English) // The American journal of clinical nutrition. - 2003. - Vol. 78, no. 3 Suppl . - P. 526-532. - PMID 12936945 .
  100. ↑ Fraser GE , Shavlik DJ Ten years of life: Is it a matter of choice? (English) // Archives of internal medicine. - 2001. - Vol. 161, no. 13 . - P. 1645-1652. - PMID 11434797 .
  101. ↑ Vesanto Melina, Winston Craig, Susan Levin. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets (Eng.) // Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. - December 2016. - Vol. 116 , iss. 12 . - P. 1970-1980 . - DOI : 10.1016 / j.jand.2016.09.09.025 .
  102. ↑ Common questions about diet and cancer (neopr.) . American Cancer Society. Date of treatment February 12, 2017.
  103. ↑ 1 2 Vegetarian Meal Plans and Diabetes (Neopr.) (Link not available) . American Diabetes Association (2014). Date of treatment March 20, 2017. Archived March 21, 2017.
  104. ↑ Meal Planning for Vegetarian Diets (Neopr.) . American Diabetes Association (2014). Date of treatment March 20, 2017.

Links

  External video files
Documentaries
 “Awareness of Communication” , UK, 2010.
 “Life is beautiful” , Russia, 2011.
 "All living things are interconnected" USA, 2008.
 Earthlings USA 2005.
  • Beketov A.N. Vegetarianism // Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary : in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
  • Lev Tolstoy. The First Step (Neopr.) (1891). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • Gail A. Aisnitz. “The Slaughter” (Neopr.) (1997). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • T.A. Pokulenko. “Vegetarianism as a Moral Value” (Neopr.) (1990). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • Howard Williams. “The ethics of food, or the moral foundations of slaughter-free nutrition for humans. A collection of biographies and extracts from the works of prominent thinkers of all time ” (Neopr.) (1893). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • Anna Margolina. “Vegetarianism and Health” (Neopr.) . Science and Life No. 4 (2010). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • Peter Brand. “Special Fates of Russian Vegetarianism” (Neopr.) . The reserve stock No. 2 (46) (2006). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • Jonathan Safran Foer . "Animal Eating" - a chapter from the book (neopr.) (2009). Archived February 4, 2012.
  • Larisa Matsevich. “Should I Read the Vegan FAQ?” (Neopr.) . Archived February 4, 2012.
Source - https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Vegetarianism&oldid = 101640316


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