Apartheid

Apartheid in South Africa ordered the Bantu peoples to live on special reservations ( bantustans ) in the territory, which amounted to about 30% of the area of ​​Bantu settlement in South Africa until the Europeans arrived. Departure from the reservation and appearance in large cities could be made only with special permission or with a job (the local population was employed in prestigious and low-paid jobs, mainly in the service sector). During the implementation of the apartheid system, black South Africans were deprived of almost all civil rights . It was argued that services like education and health were “separate but equal,” but the quality of the services provided to blacks was usually much lower . To such reproaches from the European "left" the South African government replied that the level of medical care for the black population is really lower, with an equal and even higher specific number of doctors per capita among blacks. According to the authorities, the reason for this is the lower qualification of Negro doctors. And he, in turn, was caused by the previous erroneous state policy in the field of education - a more condescending attitude towards Negro applicants , in order to increase the number of black students. The government suggested that its new measures completely eliminate disparities in the level of medical care by the beginning of the 21st century. . But these plans were not destined to materialize. .

Deprivation of the black population of political rights was common practice in the European colonies , however, after the decolonization of Africa, it began to be considered as part of apartheid policy.

The fight against apartheid became one of the UN priorities in the 1970s and 1980s . Many other international human rights organizations have joined the fight . In South Africa, an internal dissident movement was also active . The fall of apartheid is associated with the active work of Nelson Mandela and his supporters from the African National Congress (ANC) . Nelson Mandela was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his struggle. Along with the armed struggle of the ANC and the international isolation of the racist regime, the main reasons for the fall of the apartheid regime were the decline in the white population from 21% in 1940 to 11% in 1990 , as well as measures to dismantle the apartheid system carried out during the reign of Frederic de Klerk (for which he was also awarded the Nobel Peace Prize).

The Robben Island Prison is considered the symbol of apartheid, where thousands were kept during apartheid political prisoners . Now the prison is one of the main tourist attractions in South Africa.

For the history of South Africa before apartheid, see History of South Africa

Although apartheid is usually associated with the predominance of Afrikaners in government from 1948 to 1994 , the British Empire in the 19th century limited the rights to relocate Negroes from their territories to the regions of the Cape Colony and Natal , occupied by whites and people of color. Negroes were forbidden not only to move to these lands, but also generally to move from one district to another without an appropriate pass, which they should always have with them. In Cape Town and the cities of Natal, they were forbidden to go outside after sunset.

Thus, it is sometimes argued that apartheid was a continuation and expansion of the segregation practiced by white governments in South Africa. Examples of this policy include the Land Act of 1912 and restrictions on hiring Negroes for work, the appearance of which was associated with the agreements reached by the Boer republics ( Transvaal and the Orange Free State ) with the British Empire after the Boer War . On the other hand, there is an opinion that in the beginning the idea of ​​apartheid implied only political separation (“big apartheid”), but not everyday segregation (“small apartheid”). For example, during World War II, the Smats United Government did not oversee segregationist laws.

In the course of the pre-election campaign before the 1948 general election, the National Party (NP) made apartheid politics the basis of its program. The NP won the election by a small margin, defeating the United Smuts Party, and formed a coalition government with the Afrikaners Party , led by a Protestant clergyman D.F. Malan . In fact, a secret organization of extreme Afrikaner nationalists Bruderbond came to power.

The government immediately began the implementation of apartheid. Laws were passed banning mixed marriages, a racial classification of all citizens was introduced, and a commission was created to deal with difficult cases. The basis of apartheid was the Group Areas Act, passed in 1950, whose goal was the geographical division of racial groups. The design of the apartheid system took place in the context of the rise of the anti-colonial struggle in the countries of Asia and Africa, which could not but affect the general character of the policy of the government of the National Party. Apartheid was supposed to help whites maintain their dominance by restricting the territory of blacks to special territories, homelands, which later became known as bantustans . In them, under the control of their own authorities, consisting of representatives of the local African political elite, the main part of the Negro population should have concentrated, and in the territories reserved for whites, only those whose labor was necessary for the operation of industrial enterprises and the servicing of whites remained. In 1953, the Separate Amenities Act was enacted, introducing separate beaches , public transportation , hospitals , schools and universities . The passport regime was even more tightened: now blacks should always have identity cards with them, which greatly complicated their migration to the “white” regions of the country. With the introduction of this law, blacks were forbidden without special permission to live in the "white" cities and even just visit them. Living in big cities was allowed only to those who had work there, but not to their family members.

Johannes Streid , who became prime minister after Malan, stripped the blacks of the few voting rights they had. In 1951, the previous government adopted the Separate Electoral Representation Act, but its constitutionality was challenged in court by a group of four voters with the support of the United Party. The Cape Provincial Supreme Court refused them, but the Court of Appeal passed their protest and declared the law null and void, since two-thirds of the deputies of both houses of parliament were required to amend the constitution . Then the government passed the Parliamentary Supreme Court Act, giving parliament the right to overturn court decisions. This was declared illegal by both the Court of Appeal and the Cape Court. In 1955, the Streydom government increased the number of judges in the Court of Appeal from five to eleven, appointing judges sympathetic to apartheid politics. In the same year, the Senate Law appeared, increasing the number of deputies from 49 to 89, and as a result of the redistribution, the NP had 79 seats. Finally, at a joint meeting of both chambers, the Law on Separate Voter Representation was adopted, as a result of which a separate list of color voters was formed in the Cape.

The main "apartheid laws" were as follows:

• Amendment to the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949)
• Amendment to the Law on Immorality (1950)
  • This law criminalized sexual intercourse between a white man and a person of a different race.
• Population Registration Act (1950)
  • According to this law, every citizen had to be registered as white, colored or bantu (the government of the National Party excluded from the official documents the use of the word “native”, which was usually used before to refer to representatives of the indigenous population, and replaced it with the word “ bantu ”).
• Group Areas Act ( April 27, 1950 )
  • Under this law, the country was divided into several areas, each of which was given to a particular racial group. It became the basis of apartheid, since it was on its basis that the system of political and social separation was built.
• Bantu Self-Government Act (1951)
  • This law created separate "government" structures for blacks.
• Act against the illegal occupation of premises (1951)
  • This law allowed the authorities to demolish the slums where the Negroes lived.
• Act on Native Construction Workers, Introduction of Tax on Native Services (1951)
  • This law obliged white employers to pay for the construction of housing for black workers recognized as legal residents of cities.
• Separated Services Act (1953)
  • This law forbade people of different races to use the same public institutions (lounges and others)
• Bantu Education Act (1953)
  • This law completely handed over to the state control over school education among blacks, ceasing the existence of missionary schools.
• Bantu Urban Areas Act (1954)
  • This law restricted the migration of blacks to cities.
• Mines and Work Act (1956)
  • This law formalized racial discrimination in employment.
• Negro Improvement of Self-Government Act (1958)
  • This law introduced separate territorial governments in Bantustans - special areas where blacks had the right to vote. They were supposed to eventually become independent, but in practice South Africa had a decisive influence on them, even after some of them were formally independent.
• Bantu Investment Corporations Act (1959)
  • This law created a mechanism for transferring capital to Bantustans, which would create jobs there.
• University Expansion Act (1959)
  • This law introduced separate universities for blacks, color and Indians.
• Law on Physical Planning and Resource Use (1967)
  • This law allowed the government to stop the construction of industrial enterprises in the "white" areas and transfer them to the border areas of Bantustanov. Thus, the migration of blacks to Bantustan could be accelerated, where it was easier for them to find work.
• Bantustanov Citizenship Act (1970)
  • This law changed the status of the inhabitants of Bantustanov: they lost South African citizenship. Thus, it was supposed to make whites a majority in the "white" part of the country.
• Afrikaans Teaching Decree (1974)
  • According to this law, outside Bantustan, teaching was to be carried out half in English , half in Afrikaans .

While other countries (such as the United States ) have repealed discriminatory laws, South Africa, by contrast, has introduced new acts regulating racial relations. Partly the support of apartheid by white South Africans was related to demography : they sought to maintain power in a country where the white population was declining due to natural decline, while the growth of blacks in the 20th century was significant.

Everyday life

The systematics of apartheid was established by law: all of the restrictions listed below were enshrined in law. For example, the Law on the provision of separate services explicitly permitted the authorities to provide different races with services of different quality.

• Blacks were forbidden to open enterprises or conduct practices in areas designated as “white South Africa” (in fact, all important cities and economic zones), without special permission. They were supposed to move to Bantustan and work there.
• Segregation was carried out in transport and in other public places.
• Negroes were forbidden to live, work or be in white zones, unless they had a pass (known as Afrikaans as dompas - “pass for dumb people”) . This requirement did not apply only to blacks who possessed the rights described in Section 10 (who moved to cities before World War II ). Strictly speaking, whites also required a pass to the areas of Blacks.
  • Only a person who found a job could get a pass. He could not take spouses and children with him; they had to stay in Bantustans. Many white families hired blacks as domestic workers, and they lived in the house or in small rooms outside the house.
  • The pass was valid only on the territory of one magistrate district (usually coincided with a small city).
  • The absence of a pass was the reason for the immediate arrest, trial and often deportation to the relevant Bantustan, as well as for punishment of the employer. Police patrols constantly hunted for violators of the law on passes.

In Negro areas, often there was no running water or electricity .

Hospitals and ambulance services were also segregated: hospitals for whites were usually well-financed and provided high quality services, while black hospitals were chronically short of funds and workers. In many Negro areas, there were no hospitals at all ^[4] .

In the 1970s, the state spent on the education of one black child a tenth of the amount that accounted for one white. The Bantu Education Act explicitly provided for black children to be taught only the basic skills needed to work for whites. Since 1959, segregation has been introduced into higher education : all existing and reputable universities went to white. Higher educational institutions were created for representatives of other racial groups, and even for each ethnic group for blacks. However, the number of places for black students was extremely insufficient. So, in 1975, there were 170 thousand students in South Africa. Of these, 9 thousand were blacks, 6 thousand Indians, 4 thousand colored, and the rest were white ^[5] .

Segregation was carried out in buses and on the railway : buses stopped at different stops, and in trains blacks were assigned only the third class.

Segregation also extended to pedestrian bridges, open-air cinemas, cemeteries, parks, pedestrian crossings, public toilets and taxis.

Since 1948, sexual contacts, and especially marriages between people of different races , have been banned. If white was behind the wheel, he could not seat a black man of the opposite sex on the front passenger seat.

Negroes could not hire whites. Black police did not have the right to arrest white people.

Blacks were not allowed into the theaters and cinemas of the “white districts” (that is, all significant cities), while there were almost no theaters, cinemas, or restaurants in the black regions. Without the permission of the authorities (necessary, for example, to service diplomats from other African countries), most hotels and restaurants in white areas could let in blacks only as servants.

At first, blacks were forbidden to buy strong alcohol , although later this requirement was relaxed.

Negroes were not allowed to be present in the “white” churches in accordance with the 1957 amendments to the Law on Natives and Churches. However, this prohibition was never carried out harshly enough, and in churches blacks and whites could meet on an equal footing on comparatively legal grounds.

Although trade unions for blacks and non-ferrous workers have existed since the beginning of the 20th century , only after the reforms of the 1980s did Negro membership become legal.

Apartheid penetrated not only South African law, but also its culture: this ideology was actively introduced by many media. The lack of daily communication also separated the races from each other.

Bantustanov system

Supporters of apartheid suggested that after the full introduction of this system, blacks should have ceased to be citizens of the Republic of South Africa; instead, they were to become citizens of independent pseudo-state reservations ( English homelands ). Thus, Bantustan residents working in South Africa became labor immigrants with temporary work permits.

The South African government tried to divide the country into several states. Approximately 87% of the land (of which about 40% is occupied by the deserted plateau Veld ) was allocated to white, colored and Indians. The remaining 13% were divided between ten “reservations” for blacks (making up about 80% of the population). Some of the Bantustans were granted “independence”, which, however, was not recognized by any third country ^[6] . If a person belonged to Bantustan, which gained independence, he lost the citizenship of South Africa and instead of a pass received a passport of his reservation. Belonging to other, “autonomous” Bantustans, they also lost part of their rights related to South African citizenship (for example, if a person wanted to leave the country altogether, he did not receive a passport, but “travel documents”). The government tried to draw a parallel between its problems with black workers and the difficulties that other countries experienced in connection with illegal migration .

Most blacks lost South African citizenship after their bantustans were declared "independent." Thus, they could not obtain a South African passport giving the right to travel abroad; however, it was difficult to obtain this passport without it.

Forced Eviction

In the 1960s , 1970s and early 1980s, the government pursued a policy of "resettlement", trying to force people to go to areas intended for the residence of the respective groups. According to some reports, the number of people resettled at that time reached three and a half million people. The following groups could be evicted:

• Wage workers on white farms.
• Residents of the so-called "black spots" - plots of land belonging to blacks and surrounded by "white" farms.
• Families of workers living in the suburbs near Bantustanov.
• "Excessive people" in cities, including thousands of people in the current Western Cape : the area was declared the "area of ​​preference for color work", and Negroes were relocated to Siskey and Transkei in Bantustans.

The most famous resettlements of the 1950s occurred in Johannesburg , where 60,000 people were resettled in the new suburb of Soweto (short for Soweto , short for South Western Townships).

Until 1955, Sophia Town was one of the few urban areas where blacks were allowed to own land; he gradually developed into a truly multiracial settlement. As Johannesburg grew, Sophia Town became a place of residence for an increasing number of black workers, as it was conveniently located near the industrial center. However, despite ANC protests , the resettlement of Sofiyatown began on February 9, 1955 : in the early morning the police entered the area, drove the residents out onto the street and loaded their belongings on specially provided trucks. Residents were taken to a plot of land acquired by the government two years before, about 20 km southwest of the center of Johannesburg, known as the Meadowlands. Sophia Town was demolished, and a white suburb called Triomf was built in its place. In the next few years, similar events also occurred in Durban (Keito-Manor, or Mkhumban) and Cape Town (55,000 people of color and Indians of the Sixth District were relocated to new suburbs). In addition to the Negro population, 600,000 people of color, Indians and Chinese, and 40,000 of whites were affected by the Group Regions Act.

Colored

The entire population was legally divided into four groups: blacks, whites, Asians (mainly Indians) and "colored". The last group included people of mixed origin, whose ancestors were representatives of the Khoisan peoples , Bantu peoples, and European immigrants (as well as Malays , especially in the western part of the Cape); some “purebred” koisans also belonged to “colored” ones. Sophisticated rules have been developed by the South African authorities to determine who the color is. Decision-making was entrusted to small officials. Sometimes members of the same family could fall into different groups. After further investigation, all colored ones were “cataloged” into smaller subgroups. In today's South Africa, the term "colored" is not liked by many, although it does not have a legal coloring, as before. In recent years, the names “so-called colored” ( African. Sogenaame Kleurlinge ) and “brown” ( African. Bruinmense ) have become widely used.

In the framework of apartheid, colored people were also discriminated against: they were resettled in special suburbs, sometimes forcing them to leave their family houses for a very long time. The quality of education provided in color was far worse than the quality of education for whites (although better than for blacks). Many colored people played an important role in the struggle against apartheid: for example, the African political organization founded in 1902 accepted only colored people into its ranks.

For almost all the time of the “official” apartheid - from about 1950 to 1983 - the color ones, like the Negroes, were practically deprived of the right to vote. In 1983, the constitution was amended, according to which color and Asians received the right to participate in elections to the three-chamber parliament . These amendments did not receive widespread support. It was assumed that the “colored” minority would have gained the right to vote, and the representatives of the Negro majority would become citizens of the “independent” Bantustans. This situation continued until the abolition of apartheid.

Other minorities

A complex problem for the apartheid government was South African East Asian descent: their number was very small, but they could not be clearly assigned to any of the four statutory groups. Chinese South Africans, whose ancestors came to the Witwatersrand mines back in the 19th century , were usually classified as “Indians,” that is, “non-white,” and immigrants from Taiwan , South Korea, and Japan , with whom South Africa maintained diplomatic relations , received the status of “honorary whites ”, That is, they received the same rights as the whites. Sometimes representatives of other non-white minorities (even blacks) received this status, if the government believed that the person was “civilized”, fully embracing Western values. Often this rule applied to African Americans .

White opponents of apartheid

Apartheid was not supported by all layers of the white population. The leadership and teaching staff of universities, where the composition of students from the very beginning was multiracial, apartheid policies were criticized and often sabotaged, despite the government’s efforts to introduce segregation, in particular the creation of separate “black” universities.

Some organizations of World War II veterans actively opposed apartheid, especially since the apartheid National Party during the war period sympathized with Nazism and opposed the support of the anti-Hitler coalition. Former military pilot ace Adolf Malan spent in the 1950s. large demonstrations, the number of participants of which reached several tens of thousands.

In the South African Communist Party, which fought against apartheid, there were also many whites (for historical reasons, mainly Jews) ^{[7] [8] [9]} . Among her prominent white figures were Joe Slovo , , , Ronnie Casrils .

Black Resistance

The coming to power of the National Party in 1948 and the proclamation of apartheid as the official policy of the new government and the intensification of repressions against the non-white population forced the African National Congress (ANC) to pursue its activity, which adhered to rather moderate tactics. More radical leaders who left the ANC Youth League began to come to leadership in the organization. In 1949, the ANC first launched a program that openly provided for protests in the form of strikes, protests, and civil disobedience. This continued through the 1950s and sometimes led to riots. In Johannesburg Sofitown, active opposition to the security forces of apartheid, up to and including armed attacks, was provided by gang groups of black youth, primarily Vultures of Don Matter ^[10] .

On June 25-26, 1955, several organizations, including the Indian Congress and the ANC, gathered at the People's Congress in Cliptown near Johannesburg and adopted the Freedom Charter , which put forward the idea of ​​a Union of South Africa (SJA) as a democratic state that does not know racial discrimination. The Charter also provided for the nationalization of "mineral wealth hidden underground", as well as all banks and industrial enterprises "owned by monopolies" ^[11] . After the adoption of the Charter, opponents of apartheid (leader Lutuli , Nelson Mandela , Walter Sisulu , Moses Kotane , Oliver Tambo , Rusty Bernstein, Joe Slovo and others) were arrested on charges of treason, but on March 29, 1961, the court acquitted them ^[11] .

On March 21, 1960, police in the village of Sharpeville opened fire on unarmed black demonstrators , killing 69 people, causing outrage throughout the world. After that, the leaders of the anti-apartheid movement decided to switch to violent methods of struggle, creating the military organization “Umkonto ve sisve” (“ Spear of the nation ”). In the same year, South Africa withdrew from the British Commonwealth and declared itself a Republic (South Africa).

The tense situation in the country in June 1976 caused a rebellion of blacks in Soweto - a suburb of Johannesburg, which then spread to other cities. A state of emergency was introduced, but the unrest continued for almost a year.

After the events in Soweto, Western countries imposed sanctions against South Africa. In 1977, outrage in the world caused the death in prison of human rights activist Steve Biko . These events, as well as the military defeat in Angola and the corruption scandal at the Ministry of Information ("the scam of Eshel Rudi "), undermined the position of the government. Наиболее жёсткие проводники апартеида — премьер-министр Балтазар Форстер , министр юстиции, полиции и тюрем Джимми Крюгер , директор Бюро государственной безопасности Хендрик ван ден Берг — в 1978—1979 были вынуждены уйти в отставку.

Новое правительство Питера Боты приступило к осторожным реформам — была отменена сегрегация на транспорте, в спорте, была легализована деятельность африканских профсоюзов. Была принята новая конституция, сделавшая ЮАР президентской республикой и предусматривавшая трёхпалатный парламент — для белых, цветных и индийцев (при том, что негры составляли большинство населения, они право голоса не получили). Естественно, что негры были недовольны новой конституцией и начали против неё демонстрации, поддержанные забастовками.

В марте 1985 года полиция вновь расстреляла мирную демонстрацию. Это вызвало всеобщую забастовку, переросшую в новое восстание негров, охватившее почти все города ЮАР. Несмотря на аресты около 25 тыс. человек, правительству не удавалось справиться с волнениями до конца 1986 года.

ООН и Международный уголовный суд

В 1973 году Генеральная ассамблея ООН приняла Международную конвенцию о пресечении преступления апартеида и наказании за него ^{[12] [13]} . Непосредственной целью конвенции было создание юридических оснований для того, чтобы страны-члены ООН могли применять санкции к правительству ЮАР, пытаясь тем самым добиться изменения его политики. Однако формулировки конвенции имеют более широкую применимость: тем самым любому государству запрещается принимать сходные меры. Конвенция вступила в силу в 1976 году .

Римский статут определяет апартеид как одно из 11 преступлений против человечности . Граждане большинства государств (включая ЮАР) могут предстать перед Международным уголовным судом за совершение этого преступления или способствование ему ^[14] .

Спортивные соревнования

В течение многих лет спортсмены ЮАР не допускались на международные спортивные соревнования, прежде всего по олимпийским видам спорта. Широко известен бойкот Олимпийских игр , организованный африканскими странами в 1976 году . Этот бойкот был формой протеста против проведения товарищеского матча по регби между ЮАР и Новой Зеландией. Дисквалификации подвергались и спортсмены, поддерживающие контакты с ЮАР.

К началу 1990-х годов в сознании правящей элиты ЮАР стали происходить перемены. Причиной этого стало общее резкое изменение политической ситуации в мире на рубеже 1980-90-х годов. В условиях «Нового мирового порядка», объявленного президентом США Джорджем Бушем (старшим) и предусматривающего построение демократии во всем мире, искоренение расово сегрегированного строя в южноафриканском государстве становилось одним из приоритетов США и стран ЕС . Обеспокоенные возможностью реальных экономических и политических санкций со стороны Запада , экономические круги ЮАР усилили натиск на правительство, говоря о необходимости «решительной перемены курса».

На открытии сессии парламента в феврале 1990 года незадолго до того ( 15 августа 1989 года ) ставший президентом ЮАР Фредерик де Клерк объявил о снятии запрета на деятельность АНК, Панафриканского конгресса и о полном освобождении Нельсона Манделы .

2 мая 1990 года состоялась встреча лидеров АНК с правительством ЮАР, на которой было достигнуто соглашение о проведении амнистии и последующей реабилитации политзаключенных . Узники совести выпускались из тюрем, диссиденты могли свободно вернуться в ЮАР из-за рубежа. Им гарантировался дальнейший иммунитет от судебных преследований за политические убеждения. К 30 апреля 1991 года было освобождено 933 «борца против апартеида», однако 364 террориста остались в заключении из-за серьёзности совершенных ими преступлений. Всего в ЮАР вернулось около 6000 политических эмигрантов (отказано было лишь 100 экстремистам).

В том же году рядом белых леволиберальных политиков была предложена новая государственная модель, согласно которой каждая расовая группа должна иметь равный вес в законодательном органе, с тем, чтобы ни одна из них не могла господствовать. Однако Н. Мандела решительно отверг это предложение. В своем выступлении на митинге чернокожих радикалов в Кейптауне он заявил: «Факторы, которые сделали необходимой вооружённую борьбу, все ещё существуют сегодня, у нас нет другого выхода, кроме как продолжать борьбу».

Неопределенность политической обстановки постоянно подталкивала де Клерка к новым решительным шагам. На очередной встрече с Манделой он подписал протокол, предусматривавший, что проект новой Конституции будет разработан выборным конституционным собранием и что по итогам выборов должно быть сформировано многорасовое переходное правительство. Аналогичные предложения выдвинул многопартийный форум, названный Конвентом за демократическую Южную Африку (КОДЕСА).

Движение « Инката », которое теперь стало называться Партией свободы Инката (ПСИ), выступило против этого соглашения, и в декабре 1992 года вождь Мангосуту Бутелези опубликовал проект Конституции будущего государства в составе этнического бантустана Квазулу и провинции Натал . Другие лидеры бывших бантустанов (на тот момент де-факто независимых государств): Бопутатсваны и Сискея также отказались принимать участие в создании многорасового унитарного государства .

Начались массовые вооруженные столкновения сторонников АНК и ПСИ.

В то же время активизировали боевые действия и члены Панафриканского конгресса. Они периодически нападали на полицейских и белых фермеров. На митинге 27 марта 1993 года глава ПАК Кларенс Маквету в открытую взял ответственность на свою организацию за убитых незадолго до этого белую женщину и двух её детей, и провозгласил: «Один фермер — одна пуля! Мы собираемся убивать всех белых — и детей, и стариков. Это будет год террора!»

Белое население между тем активно вооружалось. В 1990—1992 годах в день выдавалось более 500 лицензий на ношение огнестрельного оружия . Был создан Африканерский народный блок (АНФ), в который вошли более 20 организаций белых. Председателем его совета стал Ф. Харценберг, а директорат возглавил герой войны в Анголе , бывший командующий Силами обороны Южной Африки генерал Констанд Фильюн ( Constand Viljoen ) ^[15] . Главными целями АНФ было создание Бурской народной армии (из числа резервистов) и достижение самоопределения для африканеров.

Страна оказалась на пороге полномасштабной гражданской войны .

25 июля 1993 года произошёл теракт , имевший серьёзные международные последствия. Четыре негра ворвались во время богослужения в Церковь Святого Иакова в Кейптауне . Применив ручные гранаты и автоматы, нападавшие убили 12 и ранили 47 человек. В числе погибших оказались двое рыбаков с украинского траулера «Апогей», трое были тяжело ранены ^[16] .

В сложившейся ситуации, учитывая сильное международное давление, Фредерику де Клерку фактически не оставалось ничего другого, как согласиться на проведение всеобщих демократических выборов.

Выборы состоялись 26-29 апреля 1994 года . Победил АНК, получив поддержку большинства избирателей — 63 %, Национальная партия набрала 21 % голосов.

9 мая 1994 года Национальная ассамблея избрала президентом ЮАР Нельсона Манделу.

Продолжавшийся почти 45 лет период апартеида в ЮАР завершился.

После отмены апартеида коренное население получило реальный доступ к образованию, к государственным должностям и к занятию бизнесом. Были отменены международные санкции против ЮАР, что вызвало приток иностранных инвестиций. Основой конкурентоспособности ЮАР является уникальное сочетание высокопрофессионального белого менеджмента и дешевой чёрной рабочей силы. Тем не менее в 2000—2007 годах уровень безработицы в ЮАР составлял 25-30 % ^{[17] [18]} .

С 1994 года число убийств в ЮАР стабильно снижалось, уменьшившись с 66,9 убийств на 100 тысяч населения до 31,9 к 2011 году ^[19] .

Правительство АНК осуществляло программы, при которых при устройстве на работу предпочтение отдаётся людям с чёрным цветом кожи. Но компетентных специалистов среди негров пока мало. При этом многие высокообразованные белые специалисты эмигрировали из страны, прежде всего из-за всплеска преступности. С 1995 по 2008 г. из ЮАР уехало около 800 тыс. белых из живших в ней на момент отмены апартеида четырёх с лишним миллионов ^[20] .

• Каста (Латинская Америка)
• Район №9
• Брудербонд

• ЮАР. Апартеид
• Становление и крушение системы апартеида в Южной Африке. Развитие ЮАР в 1990-е — начале XXI века (недоступная ссылка)
• Жуков Д. Апартеид. История режима
• Гармсон Б. Стив Бико и значение его личности в южноафриканском сопротивлении
• Международная конвенция о пресечении преступления апартеида и наказании за него (недоступная ссылка с 23-05-2013 [2295 дней] — история , копия )
• А. Ривз. Шарпевильский расстрел — водораздел в истории Южной Африки
• Shosholoza Песня борцов с апартеидом
• Апартеид на сайте «Про ЮАР»
• Андрей МАНЧУК Страх и ненависть апартхейда
• Смерть Манделы: какой станет ЮАР//Передача радиостанции «Эхо Москвы»