Austro-Turkish War (1552–1559)

The Peace of Constantinople in 1547 established the partition of the Kingdom of Hungary into three parts: Buda Eyale, Habsburg Hungary and the Transylvania Principality, vassal to the Turks. Taking advantage of the fact that Suleiman I was busy with the war with the Persians, Ferdinand I of Habsburg tried to take possession of Transylvania. In September 1549, his representatives agreed with the governor of the principality, György Martinuzzi, to transfer Ferdinand the possessions of Janos игigmond , who in return received the duchies of Oppeln and Ratibor in Silesia . Already in March 1550, the Sultan learned about this agreement from his ambassador to Vienna, the German renegade Ahmed, who was sent to inform Ferdinand about Suleiman’s victories in Iran ^{[1] [2]} .

Peace in Hungary was also fragile. Run Szekesfehervara Velid Shah with 4 thousand detachment plundered the land between the Slave and the Pope. The Hungarian detachments Pala Ratkai and Imre Teleki defeated him at Veszprém , having recaptured him completely and taking 600 prisoners and 13 banners ^[1] .

Having learned about the intrigues of the Austrians, in July 1551 the sultan ordered Beylerbey Rumeliy Muhammad Sokoll (Sokolovich), Smederevsky and Bosnian Pasha, Moldovans and Crimean Tatars invade Transylvania. Ferdinand sent to Transylvania a detachment of mercenaries under the command of General Giambattista Castaldo and the army of the Hungarian classes Istvan Loshontsi. On July 19, Isabella Jagiellon on behalf of her son renounced the crown, and on August 8 left the country with him. September 7, 80 thousand an army with 50 guns crossed the Danube at Petrovaradin , took Bechei , whose garrison (200 men) was cut to pieces, and another dozen fortresses that were surrendered without resistance. Lippa on the Marosha had strong fortifications built by Margrave Georg of Brandenburg, but the inhabitants threatened death with the garrison commander if he did not surrender the city. Having spoiled the guns and detonated the powder warehouse, he left the fortress. 5 thousand sipahs and 200 Janissaries of the Bosnian Pasha were introduced to Lippu ^[3] .

Temeshwar was besieged; he was defended by Loshontsi along with Spanish and Italian captains. Ferdinand sent to help another 5 thousand mercenaries. Thanks to the Austrian patronage, Martinuzzi, having become a cardinal, seeing the weakness of the Habsburg forces, began correspondence with Muhammad Sokoll and sent a tribute to the Sultan. Castaldo and Martinuzzi with large forces besieged Lippa on November 4. The 7th assault took place. The Spaniards were the first to attack, then the Germans under the command of Arco, the Italians Pallavicini and the Hungarians Nadashdi. The city was sacked, and Pasha with 1,500 fighters took refuge in the citadel. On November 16, Beylerbey lifted the siege of Temesvar and led troops off the Danube. On the same day, Martinuzzi achieved a 20-day truce with the Bosnian Pasha, and on December 5 allowed the Turks to leave the Lippa Citadel, supplying them with food. The Hungarian detachment of Ferenc Horvath and Melchior Balashi caught up with the Ottomans and defeated them in a fierce battle. The wounded pasha barely managed to leave for Belgrade with 300 people ^[4] .

Suspecting Martinutstsi in the desire to become prince of Transylvania, Ferdinand ordered Castaldo to stop the cardinal. On December 18, mercenaries led by Sforza Pallavicini killed Martinuzzi in the castle of Alvinz ( Vincu de Jos ), inflicting 63 wounds on him ^[5] .

Battle of Szeged

The hostilities opened with an attack of 5 thousand Miklos Thoth’s guides on Szeged . Combining with the Spanish, Silesian and Hungarian troops, they stormed the city on the night of February 24. The Turkish pasha Michal-oglu Khizr-bek was taken by surprise and the half-naked barely managed to retreat to the citadel with part of the garrison. The Hajduk looted the city. It was not possible to capture the castle, as the Turks made a successful sortie, and Khizr-bek with the help of pigeons informed the Buda Pasha of his plight. The Buda Ali Pasha united with the Smederev Pasha Rustem Bek and defeated the Christians under the walls of Szeged. Miklos Thot managed to escape with 80 people, the mercenaries retreated to Lippa. The Turks took 40 banners and sent 5,000 cut off noses to Istanbul ^[6] .

Turkish Camp

After the five-year peace, the sultan planned a major campaign in the Middle Danube. The situation in Europe favored the Turkish offensive, as Charles V was busy fighting Moritz of Saxony and the French. Suleiman even sent a message to the Protestant princes of Germany, in which he reported on a joint struggle with Henry II against the Habsburgs. But by the time the campaign began, the situation in the Persian theater required the presence of the Sultan, so the command was entrusted to the second vizier, Ahmed Pasha. At the end of April, the army left Adrianople, in June joined Belgrade with units of Muhammad Sokollu, and then invaded the southern regions of Transylvania. Tatars, Moldavians and Wallachians attacked the principality from the east. The Habsburgs had only mercenary units; raising the general militia was impossible, since, according to Hungarian laws, he was to be led by a king or prince, but Ferdinand and his heir were busy with the war in Germany ^{[7] [2]} .

The Siege of Temesvar

On June 28, the Ottomans besieged Temeshwar. The defense was led by Loshontsi. The artillery made a gap, and the Turks rushed to storm without orders, but were repelled, losing 2 thousand people. Having concentrated fire on the Water Tower, the Ottomans on July 25 launched the first general assault, which cost them 3 thousand people. The Hungarians lost 1300. The next day the assault repeated. The water tower was captured. The fortress lacked food and ammunition, and German and Spanish mercenaries threatened to surrender if the commander did not enter into negotiations. Loshontsi was forced to surrender Temeshwar on condition of free exit. As usual, the Turks violated the agreement. When the troops left the fortress and passed between the ranks of the Janissaries, they began to grab the handsome young men. A brawl ensued in which the commanders of the Hungarians and mercenaries were killed. Loshontsi was captured by the Turks. He rebuked the vizier for breaking the word, and Ahmed reminded him of the fate of Lippa's garrison and ordered his head cut off ^[8] . Developing success, the Turks occupied Lippa on July 30, and Karanshebesh on August 11 ^[9] .

The invasion of Upper Hungary

In June, the Buda Pasha took Veszprem , and in July - August invaded Upper Hungary , where he attacked Dregey on July 9, overcoming the stubborn resistance of the György Sondi garrison. After this, Shag, Gyarmat, Holloke, Buyak and Sechen were captured. On August 11, the army of Ferdinand, consisting of 10-12 thousand mercenaries and 8 thousand Hungarians under the command of Erasmus Teifel, Baron Gundersdorf, suffered a crushing defeat at Palasht. Teifel and Pallavicini were captured along with 4 thousand soldiers ^{[10] [11]} .

Capture Szolnok

Ali and Ahmed Pasha performed on Szolnok . This important fortress was well prepared for defense, had 24 large guns and large stocks of gunpowder. The garrison consisted of 11 thousand foot soldiers and 300 hussars, but its chief, Lorenz Nyari, tried to escape with his people and was captured by the Turks at the very gates (September 4). He bought his freedom by giving his daughter to one of the guards, and returning to Hungary, he was acquitted by the military council, whose members he bribed ^{[12] [11]} .

The Siege of Eger

Having captured Szolnok, the Turks marched on Eger , where Istvan Dobo led the defense. With only two thousand soldiers, he, with the support of residents for more than a month (September 15 - October 18), defended the city from 150 thousand. army, repelling three assaults. The Turks had to retreat.

As a result of the campaign, the Turks occupied the Banat and formed the Temeshvar Eylet, expanding their holdings in Hungary and weakening the Habsburgs ties with Transylvania.

The next few years, the sultan was busy with the war with Iran and internal turmoil, and could not undertake a major campaign in Hungary, limited to private operations and diplomatic pressure. In Transylvania, the pro-Turkish nobility group in the summer of 1552 obtained the continuation of tribute payments from the National Assembly. In the autumn, estates were sent to Istanbul with promises to remove German troops if the Sultan returned Temeshwar to the Principality. In the summer of 1553, the nobles of a number of regions called for the return of Janos Жigmond and asked for help from the Buda Pasha. At the end of June, the protege of the Sultan and Isabella Jagiellonian governor Peter Petrovich with 500 soldiers arrived in Debrecen . In September, Castaldo was forced to leave the principality, but that same fall the Austrians managed to suppress the pro-Ottoman movement ^{[13] [2]} .

In 1554 the pressure of the Ottomans intensified. On March 6, the Sultan demanded the return of Janos Gigmond. Fearing a Turkish invasion, the princely militia gathered in June, but soon it dispersed, without waiting for help from Ferdinand. The Archduke himself in April 1555 sent a tribute to the Sultan on his behalf from the principality, and tried to achieve peace by offering to pay annually 150 thousand ducats for all possessions of Zapolyai, or 40 thousand if Suleiman gave him Transylvania and Upper Hungary. In response, the sultan demanded that he remove the troops from Transylvania before November. On October 7, the firman was sent to the estates of the princedom demanding the return of Janos игigmond, otherwise Suleiman threatened to wipe this state off the face of the earth. Moldavian and Wallachian rulers received orders to prepare for the campaign. On December 23, 1555, a representative of Ferdinand informed the Transylvania State Assembly that Habsburg would not be able to provide assistance. In January 1556, Janos Gigmond was called up to Transylvania. On June 14, Ferdinand wrote to the Sultan that he was abandoning the principality, and on October 22, Janos and Isabella returned to their possessions ^{[9] [2]} .

The ease with which the Habsburgs lost to Transylvania was due to the fact that by 1556 the Turks were already advancing in Transdanubia and threatening the mountain towns of Upper Hungary. Transylvania lost strategic importance for the Austrians, and Ferdinand was preparing to become emperor after the renunciation of his brother ^{[9] [2]} .

In 1553-1555, the Ottomans gradually moved south to Upper Hungary, where in 1554 they captured the Filyakovo fortress, which became the center of the Filyakovo sanjak. June 13, 1556 Ali Pasha of Buda besieged Sigetvar . The defenders of the fortress stubbornly defended themselves, repelling four assaults. Nador Tamas Nadashdi and the ban of Croatia Miklos Zrinyi launched a diversion, attacking from 10 thousand. detachment of the fortress of Babach. The detachment sent to her by Ali Pasha was defeated on July 22, after which the Ottomans lifted the siege of Sigetwara.

With varying degrees of success, hostilities continued until the beginning of 1559. On January 31, 1559 peace was concluded, which on August 17, 1562 was extended by 8 years ^[14] .

The Ottomans took possession of the Banat and returned Transylvania to their rule. The Sultan considered the direct conquest of this poor country unnecessary, content with vassal dependence and payment of tribute. The Habsburgs were forced to retreat, but soon resumed an attack on the possessions of Janos игigmond in Zatis, which led to a new Austro-Turkish war. An important outcome of the war was the creation in 1556 of the Court Military Council ( Gofkrigsrat ), which coordinated military operations and border defense.

• Hammer-Purgstall J. von. Histoire de l'empire ottoman. T. II. - P .: Bethune et Plon, 1844
• Habsburgs, Hungary, Transylvanian Principality and Ottoman Empire in the 16th century // Ottoman Empire and the countries of Central, Eastern and Southeast Europe in the XV — XVI centuries. - M .: Nauka, 1984
• History of Hungary. T. I. - M .: Nauka, 1971