Normative ethics is a philosophical discipline, a section of ethics that studies the existing norms of morality, moralistic teachings. It can be considered as a branch of theoretical ethics - the science of norms.
Normative ethics can be viewed from two perspectives: cognitive and non-cognitive. Moreover, from the point of view of the non-cognitive position, normative ethics is considered as an element of moral consciousness and descriptive ethics as knowledge of morality is contrasted with it. From a cognitive point of view, normative ethics does not differ from morality and, therefore, is its own object of study, and the concepts of morality and knowledge of morality are mixed.
Some contemporary scholars adhering to cognitive positions argue that normative ethics should not be regarded as a scientific theory, since its subject cannot be strictly generalized and systematized [1] [2] .
Content
Normative Ethics
Any rationalistic moralism can be considered as one of the areas of normative ethics, including applied ethics and even specific moral teachings.
Historical Destinations
Stoicism
The school of philosophy that arose during the time of early Hellenism and retained its influence until the end of the ancient world. The school got its name by the name of the porta Stoa Poikile ( Greek. Στοά ποικ буквλη , literally. "Painted portico"), where the founder of Stoicism, Zenon Kitiy , first acted as a teacher on his own. In ethics, Stoicism is close to cynics , not sharing the latter's contempt for culture. All people are citizens of outer space as a world state; Stoic cosmopolitanism equated (in theory) in the face of world law all people: free and slaves , Greeks and barbarians , men and women. Every moral action is, according to the Stoics, nothing more than self-preservation and self-affirmation, and this increases the common good. All sins and immoral acts are self-destruction, the loss of one's own human nature. Correct desires and abstinence, actions and deeds are a guarantee of human happiness, for this we need to develop our personality in every way as opposed to everything external, not to bow to any force. The main idea of stoic ethics is the teleologically and causally predetermined course of world events. The purpose of man is to live "in harmony with nature." This is the only way to achieve harmony. “Whoever agrees, fate leads him; those who disagree, she drags” ( Seneca ). Stoics distinguish four types of affects: pleasure , disgust , lust and fear . They must be avoided using the correct judgment (orthos logos). The Stoics divide all things into Good (ethics) , evil , indifference ( adiaphor ). Prefer should be things that are consistent with nature. Stoics make the same differences between actions. There are bad and good deeds, middle deeds are called “appropriate” if they are realized in a natural predisposition. In the days of the empire, the teachings of the Stoics turned into a kind of religion for the people. The ethics and physics of stoicism enjoyed great influence during the Renaissance and early New Time .
Hedonism
Ethical teaching, according to which pleasure is the highest good and purpose of life. One of the known varieties of hedonism is eudaimonism . The founder of hedonism is considered to be the ancient Greek philosopher Aristippus (435-355 BC), a contemporary of Socrates . Aristippus distinguishes between two states of the human soul: pleasure as soft, gentle and pain as a rough, impetuous movement of the soul. At the same time, no distinction is made between types of pleasure, each of which in its essence is qualitatively similar to the other. The path to happiness, according to Aristippus, lies in achieving maximum pleasure, while avoiding pain. The meaning of life, according to Aristippus, lies precisely in obtaining physical pleasure.
Epicureism
Philosophical doctrine based on the ideas of Epicurus and his followers. Epicureism was one of the most influential philosophical movements in Antiquity . Epicurean philosophy, especially the philosophy of Epicurus himself, does not have the ultimate goal of finding theoretical truth, it does not set itself the task of obtaining some kind of pure knowledge. Epicureism serves very specific needs: it seeks a way to rid a person of suffering. Epicureans believed that for a happy life, a person needs:
- lack of bodily suffering;
- equanimity of the soul ( ataraxia );
- friendship .
The main interest for the Epicureans is the sensual world, therefore their main ethical principle is pleasure. But Epicurus did not present pleasure as vulgar and simplistic, but as a noble calm, balanced pleasure. He believed that human desires are unlimited, and their means of satisfaction are limited. Therefore, it is necessary to limit oneself only to needs, the satisfaction of which leads to suffering. Other desires should be abandoned; this requires wisdom and prudence. Unlike the Stoics , who considered rock to be inevitable, the Epicureans endow man with free will. A person can indulge in pleasures according to his desires. Life is the main pleasure. Dying, Epicurus took a warm bath and asked to bring him wine.
Current Trends
Consequentialism
The accepted general designation for those groups of moral theories in which it is believed that only the consequences of their behavior can serve as a true basis for any moral assessment of this behavior. Thus, from the point of view of consequentialists, a morally legal act (or inaction) is one that gives good results or consequences. This point of view is often expressed in the form of the aphorism "the end justifies the means." Consequentialism in the ethical sense is usually understood, in contrast to deontology , in the fact that in deontology an assessment of the correctness or incorrectness of behavior depends on the nature of the behavior itself, and not on the results of this behavior. It also differs from the “ law of power ”, which focuses more on the character of the subject than on the essence of the consequences of the action (or inaction) directly.
Utilitarianism
The direction in ethics (ethical theory), according to which the moral value of a behavior or act is determined by its usefulness . According to the classic formulation of Bentham, it is moral that "brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people." The main differences in the theory of utilitarianism relate to the definition of the concepts of benefit and happiness. Bentham and many other philosophers considered the maximum superiority of pleasure over suffering to be a benefit.
Deontology
The doctrine of the problems of morality. [3] [4] The term was introduced by Bentham in his work " Deontology, or the science of morality " ( Eng. Deontology or The Science of Morality ) to refer to the theory of morality as a science of morality. [3] [4] [5] . The foundations of deontology in domestic medicine were laid by the honored Soviet oncologist NN Petrov [6] . Subsequently, science narrowed down to characterizing the problems of human duty, considering duty as an internal experience of coercion, given ethical values. In an even narrower sense, deontology was designated as a science that specifically studies medical ethics, the rules and norms of the doctor’s interaction with colleagues and the patient .
Postmodernism
The term designating structurally similar phenomena in world public life and culture of the second half of the 20th century [7] : it is used both to characterize the post - non - classical type of philosophizing , and for a complex of styles in art . Postmodern is a state of modern culture, which includes a kind of philosophical position, pre-postmodern art, as well as mass culture of this era [8] [9] .
Notes
- ↑ Forrow, D. Against Theory: Continental and Analitic Challenges in Moral Philosophy. - New York and London: Routledge, 1995.
- ↑ Jamieson, D. Method and moral theory // A Companion to Ethics. - 1993.
- ↑ 1 2 Deontology // Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary . / Ch. Edition: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1983.
- ↑ 1 2 Maksimov L.V. Deontology // New Philosophical Encyclopedia : in 4 volumes / Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences ; Nat social science fund; Pres scientific ed. Council V. S. Styopin . - M.: Thought , 2000-2001. - ISBN 5-244-00961-3 . 2nd ed., Rev. and extra. - M .: Thought , 2010 .-- ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9 .
- ↑ Mikeshina L. A. “Deontology, or the science of morality” // New Philosophical Encyclopedia : in 4 volumes / Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences ; Nat social science fund; Pres scientific ed. Council V. S. Styopin . - M.: Thought , 2000-2001. - ISBN 5-244-00961-3 . 2nd ed., Rev. and extra. - M.: Thought , 2010. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9
- ↑ Brief biography of N. N. Petrov on the official website of the Oncology Research Institute named after N. N. Petrova
- ↑ Dianova V.M. Postmodernism as a cultural phenomenon
- ↑ New philosophical dictionary. Postmodernism. - Мn .: The modern writer, 2007. - S. 425.
- ↑ Postmodernism. Encyclopedia
Literature
- Maksimov L.V. Essay on modern metaethics // Questions of Philosophy: Journal. - 1998. - No. 10 . - S. 39-54 .
- R. G. Apresyan. Special course "Normative Ethics"